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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Komplexe Zahl</span></h1>
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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content mw-content-ltr" lang="de" dir="ltr"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="de" dir="ltr"><div class="vorlage_zeichen thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="darkmode-hintergrundfarbe-passiv" style="padding: 0.2em 0.6em; background: #E0F0FF; color:#202122; border: 1px solid var(--dewiki-rahmenfarbe1); font-size: 2.5rem; line-height: 1.25em;">ℂ</div><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:center">Der <a href="Buchstabe_mit_Doppelstrich" title="Buchstabe mit Doppelstrich">Buchstabe C mit<br>Doppelstrich</a> steht für die<br>Menge der <i>komplexen Zahlen</i></div></div></div>
<p>Die <b>komplexen Zahlen</b> stellen eine Erweiterung der <a href="Reelle_Zahl" title="Reelle Zahl">reellen Zahlen</a> dar.
Ziel der Erweiterung ist es, <a href="Algebraische_Gleichung" title="Algebraische Gleichung">algebraische Gleichungen</a> wie <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x^{2}+1=0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
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</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x^{2}+1=0}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e01c67127b28bb80e2102c934d0d01daa5c20a61.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:10.648ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x^{2}+1=0}" loading="lazy"></span> bzw. <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x^{2}=-1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x^{2}=-1}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/20d687ce8b19e0ef0d8f872a4e0bfdcf3a6665a1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:8.453ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x^{2}=-1}" loading="lazy"></span> lösbar zu machen. Im Gegensatz zu den Erweiterungen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {N} \subset \mathbb {Z} \subset \mathbb {Q} \subset \mathbb {R} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">N</mi>
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<mo>⊂<!-- ⊂ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">Z</mi>
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<mo>⊂<!-- ⊂ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">Q</mi>
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<mo>⊂<!-- ⊂ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
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</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {N} \subset \mathbb {Z} \subset \mathbb {Q} \subset \mathbb {R} }</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3ba699838f142ceda33ae69979178801879244e4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:16.01ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {N} \subset \mathbb {Z} \subset \mathbb {Q} \subset \mathbb {R} }" loading="lazy"></span> reicht es hier nicht mehr aus, die Zahlen „linksseitig“ zu erweitern (<a href="Ganze_Zahl" title="Ganze Zahl">ganze Zahlen</a>) oder „dichter zu stopfen“ (<a href="Rationale_Zahl" title="Rationale Zahl">rationale</a> und <a href="Reelle_Zahl" title="Reelle Zahl">reelle Zahlen</a>), sondern man wechselt von einer <a href="Zahlengerade" title="Zahlengerade">Zahlengeraden</a> zu einer Zahlenebene.
</p><p>Da die <a href="Quadrat_(Mathematik)" title="Quadrat (Mathematik)">Quadrate</a> aller reellen Zahlen größer oder gleich 0 sind, kann die Lösung der Gleichung <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x^{2}=-1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x^{2}=-1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/20d687ce8b19e0ef0d8f872a4e0bfdcf3a6665a1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:8.453ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x^{2}=-1}" loading="lazy"></span> keine reelle Zahl sein. Man braucht eine <a href="Adjunktion_(Algebra)" title="Adjunktion (Algebra)">ganz neue Zahl</a>, die man üblicherweise <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/18f0f09f6fc40e634d34aed6e205ac0f7a40e062.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.647ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> nennt, mit der Eigenschaft <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{2}=-1.}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1.</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{2}=-1.}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c70ed61797014507069e84897d9a80acca352bcf.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:8.417ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{2}=-1.}" loading="lazy"></span> Diese Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/18f0f09f6fc40e634d34aed6e205ac0f7a40e062.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.647ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> wird als <a href="Imagin%C3%A4re_Zahl" title="Imaginäre Zahl">imaginäre Einheit</a> bezeichnet.
</p><p>Komplexe Zahlen werden als Summe <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a+\mathrm {i} \cdot b}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mi>b</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a+\mathrm {i} \cdot b}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/418c3fac20749a52006ec0338250cd514a89c6e3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:7.394ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a+\mathrm {i} \cdot b}" loading="lazy"></span> definiert, wobei <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>a</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ffd2487510aa438433a2579450ab2b3d557e5edc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.23ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a}" loading="lazy"></span> als <b>Realteil</b> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle b}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>b</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle b}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f11423fbb2e967f986e36804a8ae4271734917c3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.998ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle b}" loading="lazy"></span> als <b>Imaginärteil</b> bezeichnet wird. Beides sind reelle Zahlen. Die Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/18f0f09f6fc40e634d34aed6e205ac0f7a40e062.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.647ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> ist die oben definierte imaginäre Einheit.
Auf die so definierten komplexen Zahlen lassen sich die üblichen Rechenregeln für reelle Zahlen anwenden, wobei <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/18f0f09f6fc40e634d34aed6e205ac0f7a40e062.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.647ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> wie eine Konstante verwendet wird und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
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</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/14c8895c589cf5b14e32c22565645061a1817280.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.701ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span> durch <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle -1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle -1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/704fb0427140d054dd267925495e78164fee9aac.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:2.971ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle -1}" loading="lazy"></span> ersetzt werden kann und umgekehrt. Für die Menge der komplexen Zahlen wird das Symbol <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
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</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f9add4085095b9b6d28d045fd9c92c2c09f549a7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span> (<span style="font-family:Arial; font-size:130%; font-weight:900; line-height:19px; vertical-align:top;">ℂ</span> als <a href="Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a>-Zeichen <code>U+2102</code>, siehe <a href="Buchstaben_mit_Doppelstrich" class="mw-redirect" title="Buchstaben mit Doppelstrich">Buchstaben mit Doppelstrich</a>) verwendet.
</p><p>Der so konstruierte Zahlenbereich der komplexen Zahlen bildet einen <a href="K%C3%B6rpererweiterung" title="Körpererweiterung">Erweiterungskörper</a> der reellen Zahlen und hat eine Reihe vorteilhafter Eigenschaften, die sich in vielen Bereichen der Natur- und <a href="Ingenieurwissenschaften" title="Ingenieurwissenschaften">Ingenieurwissenschaften</a> als äußerst nützlich erwiesen haben. Einer der Gründe für diese nützlichen Eigenschaften ist die <a href="Algebraisch_abgeschlossen" class="mw-redirect" title="Algebraisch abgeschlossen">algebraische Abgeschlossenheit</a> der komplexen Zahlen. Dies bedeutet, dass jede algebraische Gleichung positiven Grades über den komplexen Zahlen eine Lösung besitzt, was für reelle Zahlen nicht gilt. Diese Eigenschaft ist der Inhalt des <a href="Fundamentalsatz_der_Algebra" title="Fundamentalsatz der Algebra">Fundamentalsatzes der Algebra</a>. Ein weiterer Grund ist ein Zusammenhang zwischen <a href="Trigonometrische_Funktion" title="Trigonometrische Funktion">trigonometrischen Funktionen</a> und der <a href="Exponentialfunktion" title="Exponentialfunktion">Exponentialfunktion</a> (<a href="Eulerformel" class="mw-redirect" title="Eulerformel">Eulerformel</a>), der über die komplexen Zahlen hergestellt werden kann. Ferner ist jede auf einer <a href="Offene_Menge" title="Offene Menge">offenen Menge</a> <i>einmal</i> <a href="Differenzierbarkeit#Komplexe_Funktionen" title="Differenzierbarkeit">komplex differenzierbare</a> Funktion dort auch <i>beliebig oft</i> differenzierbar – anders als in der <a href="Analysis" title="Analysis">Analysis</a> der reellen Zahlen. Die Eigenschaften von Funktionen mit komplexen <a href="Funktion_(Mathematik)" title="Funktion (Mathematik)">Argumenten</a> sind Gegenstand der <a href="Funktionentheorie" title="Funktionentheorie">Funktionentheorie</a>, auch komplexe Analysis genannt.
</p><p>In der <a href="Elektrotechnik" title="Elektrotechnik">Elektrotechnik</a> wird stattdessen der Buchstabe <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {j} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">j</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {j} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/97685153a7b89e72bba63e2903f6d5a7663fe734.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.127ex; width:0.838ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {j} }" loading="lazy"></span> verwendet, um einer Verwechslung mit einer (durch <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle i}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>i</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle i}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/add78d8608ad86e54951b8c8bd6c8d8416533d20.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.802ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle i}" loading="lazy"></span> oder <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle i(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>i</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle i(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/06931e7bcffd32010f83c3d5dbef2d9bcbdcb670.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.451ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle i(t)}" loading="lazy"></span> bezeichneten) von der <a href="Zeit" title="Zeit">Zeit</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>t</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/65658b7b223af9e1acc877d848888ecdb4466560.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.84ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t}" loading="lazy"></span> abhängigen <a href="Stromst%C3%A4rke" class="mw-redirect" title="Stromstärke">Stromstärke</a> vorzubeugen, allerdings erhöht dies die Verwechslungsgefahr mit der <a href="Amp%C3%A8resches_Gesetz#Differentielle_Form" title="Ampèresches Gesetz">Stromdichte</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\vec {\jmath }}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>ȷ<!-- ȷ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\vec {\jmath }}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/717dbba96b60cf0173a6e5162c619c62b5e4c526.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.094ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\vec {\jmath }}}" loading="lazy"></span> in der Elektrodynamik.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2></div>
<p>Die komplexen Zahlen lassen sich als Zahlbereich im Sinne einer <a href="Menge_(Mathematik)" title="Menge (Mathematik)">Menge</a> von Zahlen, für die die <a href="Grundrechenart" title="Grundrechenart">Grundrechenarten</a> <a href="Addition" title="Addition">Addition</a>, <a href="Multiplikation" title="Multiplikation">Multiplikation</a>, <a href="Subtraktion" title="Subtraktion">Subtraktion</a> und <a href="Division_(Mathematik)" title="Division (Mathematik)">Division</a> erklärt sind, mit den folgenden Eigenschaften definieren:
</p>
<ul><li>Die reellen Zahlen sind in den komplexen Zahlen enthalten. Das heißt, dass jede reelle Zahl eine komplexe Zahl ist.</li>
<li>Das <a href="Assoziativgesetz" title="Assoziativgesetz">Assoziativgesetz</a> und das <a href="Kommutativgesetz" title="Kommutativgesetz">Kommutativgesetz</a> gelten für die Addition und die Multiplikation komplexer Zahlen.</li>
<li>Das <a href="Distributivgesetz" title="Distributivgesetz">Distributivgesetz</a> gilt.</li>
<li>Für jede komplexe Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span> existiert eine komplexe Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle -z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle -z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/78c4571a4a3ceb7e7e55712372835ebe65d20f3e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:2.896ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle -z}" loading="lazy"></span>, sodass: <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z+(-z)=0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z+(-z)=0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/70b537d323ad107d1be303e92fdab3e7259d5a97.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:12.895ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z+(-z)=0}" loading="lazy"></span></li>
<li>Für jede von Null verschiedene komplexe Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span> existiert eine komplexe Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{z}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mi>z</mi>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{z}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/fa61046938315847ced83e826ab00e87a333ecb9.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:1.658ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{z}}}" loading="lazy"></span>, sodass: <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z\cdot {\tfrac {1}{z}}=1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mi>z</mi>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z\cdot {\tfrac {1}{z}}=1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/775285144ce391e780d9bcf3cf9a12ae27d4f207.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:8.686ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z\cdot {\tfrac {1}{z}}=1}" loading="lazy"></span></li>
<li>Es existiert eine komplexe Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/18f0f09f6fc40e634d34aed6e205ac0f7a40e062.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.647ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> mit der Eigenschaft: <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \ \mathrm {i} ^{2}=-1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mtext> </mtext>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \ \mathrm {i} ^{2}=-1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f6136e9bb9ff0685b721e04ccd3a58b8a2cb89ec.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:8.351ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \ \mathrm {i} ^{2}=-1}" loading="lazy"></span></li>
<li>Unter allen Zahlbereichen mit den zuvor genannten Eigenschaften sind die komplexen Zahlen <a href="Maximales_und_minimales_Element" title="Maximales und minimales Element">minimal</a>.</li></ul>
<p>Die letzte Forderung ist gleichbedeutend damit, dass sich jede komplexe Zahl in der Form <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a+b\cdot \mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a+b\cdot \mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4fbb86c5531df27a03180711326b728aec00e30b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:7.394ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a+b\cdot \mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> (bzw. in verkürzter Notation <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a+b\,\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a+b\,\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/eddc2d84de5020860b42b37ff7706a65408cfd35.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:6.102ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a+b\,\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> oder auch <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a+\mathrm {i} \,b}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>b</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a+\mathrm {i} \,b}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d14126142e0a81a61fdf164950bef368152c299b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:6.102ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a+\mathrm {i} \,b}" loading="lazy"></span>) mit reellen Zahlen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>a</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ffd2487510aa438433a2579450ab2b3d557e5edc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.23ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle b}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>b</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle b}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f11423fbb2e967f986e36804a8ae4271734917c3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.998ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle b}" loading="lazy"></span> darstellen lässt. Die imaginäre Einheit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/18f0f09f6fc40e634d34aed6e205ac0f7a40e062.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.647ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> ist dabei keine reelle Zahl. Die Existenz eines solchen Zahlbereichs wird im Abschnitt zur <i><a href="#Konstruktion">Konstruktion der komplexen Zahlen</a></i> nachgewiesen.
</p><p>Unter Verwendung der Begriffe <a href="K%C3%B6rper_(Algebra)" title="Körper (Algebra)">Körper</a> und <a href="Isomorphismus" title="Isomorphismus">Isomorphie</a> lässt sich das so formulieren: Es gibt minimale Körper, die den Körper der reellen Zahlen und ein Element <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/18f0f09f6fc40e634d34aed6e205ac0f7a40e062.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.647ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> mit der Eigenschaft <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{2}=-1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{2}=-1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1903180d4ecaf05f4aef81a8ad389025f89c9d34.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:7.77ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{2}=-1}" loading="lazy"></span> enthalten. In einem solchen Körper hat jedes Element <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span> eine und nur eine Darstellung als <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3c85d4b2efaee1cda0c2eb0468a957f0c6f9874f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:10.288ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> mit reellen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a,b.}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo>.</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a,b.}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e77948cd629e270b0016a07b180865208c471c77.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.908ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a,b.}" loading="lazy"></span> Die komplexen Zahlen sind isomorph zu jedem solchen Körper.
</p><p>Wie gesagt, werden die <a href="Koeffizient" title="Koeffizient">Koeffizienten</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a,b}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a,b}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/181523deba732fda302fd176275a0739121d3bc8.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.261ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a,b}" loading="lazy"></span> als Real- bzw. Imaginärteil von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a+b\,\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a+b\,\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/eddc2d84de5020860b42b37ff7706a65408cfd35.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:6.102ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a+b\,\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> bezeichnet. Dafür haben sich zwei typografische Schreibweisen etabliert:
</p>
<ul><li><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a=\operatorname {Re} \!{(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )}\ }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>Re</mi>
<mspace width="negativethinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mtext> </mtext>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a=\operatorname {Re} \!{(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )}\ }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/9778310d6ad7271190a3e30b72bb1ce766b49685.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:15.563ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a=\operatorname {Re} \!{(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )}\ }" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \ b=\operatorname {Im} \!{(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mtext> </mtext>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>Im</mi>
<mspace width="negativethinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \ b=\operatorname {Im} \!{(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f26e1eabe3825846945495636c973b2709beb6a2.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:15.363ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \ b=\operatorname {Im} \!{(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )}}" loading="lazy"></span> (Schreibweise der Operatoren ohne besondere Ausschreibung)</li>
<li><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a=\,\,\Re {(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )}\ }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi mathvariant="normal">ℜ<!-- ℜ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mtext> </mtext>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a=\,\,\Re {(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )}\ }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7ac690f339a405e2ddde9123d6fa306af1216e06.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:15.518ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a=\,\,\Re {(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )}\ }" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \;b=\;\;\Im {(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mspace width="thickmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mspace width="thickmathspace"></mspace>
<mspace width="thickmathspace"></mspace>
<mi mathvariant="normal">ℑ<!-- ℑ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \;b=\;\;\Im {(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1e41ec851d21e751ee847c9cc3117b5fa6d0b32f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:15.23ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \;b=\;\;\Im {(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )}}" loading="lazy"></span> (Schreibweise der Operatoren in <a href="Fraktur_(Schrift)" title="Fraktur (Schrift)">Frakturschrift</a>)</li></ul>
<p>In der <a href="Elektrotechnik" title="Elektrotechnik">Elektrotechnik</a> wird das kleine <i>i</i> schon für zeitlich veränderliche Ströme verwendet (siehe <a href="Wechselstrom" title="Wechselstrom">Wechselstrom</a>) und kann zu Verwechslungen mit der imaginären Einheit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/18f0f09f6fc40e634d34aed6e205ac0f7a40e062.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.647ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> führen. Daher wird in der Elektrotechnik üblicherweise für die imaginäre Einheit die Bezeichnung <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {j} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">j</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {j} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/97685153a7b89e72bba63e2903f6d5a7663fe734.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.127ex; width:0.838ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {j} }" loading="lazy"></span> gewählt, wie dies auch in der Norm DIN 1302 festgelegt ist.
</p><p>In der <a href="Physik" title="Physik">Physik</a> wird zwischen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle i}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>i</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle i}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/add78d8608ad86e54951b8c8bd6c8d8416533d20.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.802ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle i}" loading="lazy"></span> für die <a href="Stromst%C3%A4rke" class="mw-redirect" title="Stromstärke">Stromstärke</a> bei <a href="Wechselstrom" title="Wechselstrom">Wechselstrom</a> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/18f0f09f6fc40e634d34aed6e205ac0f7a40e062.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.647ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> durch die Art der Darstellung des Buchstabens für die imaginäre Einheit unterschieden. Dies führt durch die Trennung beim aufmerksamen Leser nicht zu Verwechslungen und wird in dieser Form weitgehend sowohl in der physikalisch-experimentellen als auch in der physikalisch-theoretischen Literatur angewandt; handschriftlich ist diese Feinheit allerdings nicht zu halten, weshalb häufig das <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {j} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">j</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {j} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/97685153a7b89e72bba63e2903f6d5a7663fe734.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.127ex; width:0.838ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {j} }" loading="lazy"></span> als Symbol für die imaginäre Einheit verwendet wird. Siehe auch: <a href="Komplexe_Wechselstromrechnung" title="Komplexe Wechselstromrechnung">Komplexe Wechselstromrechnung</a>
</p><p>Komplexe Zahlen können gemäß <a href="DIN_1304" class="mw-redirect" title="DIN 1304">DIN 1304</a>-1 und DIN 5483-3 unterstrichen dargestellt werden, um sie von <a href="Reelle_Zahlen" class="mw-redirect" title="Reelle Zahlen">reellen Zahlen</a> zu unterscheiden. Siehe auch: <a href="Phasor" title="Phasor">Phasor</a>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grundlegende_Eigenschaften">Grundlegende Eigenschaften</h2></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Darstellung_von_komplexen_Zahlen_in_der_komplexen_Zahlenebene"><span id="Komplexe_Zahlenebene"></span> Darstellung von komplexen Zahlen in der komplexen Zahlenebene</h3></div>
<p>Während sich die Menge <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/786849c765da7a84dbc3cce43e96aad58a5868dc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }" loading="lazy"></span> der <a href="Reelle_Zahlen" class="mw-redirect" title="Reelle Zahlen">reellen Zahlen</a> als Punkte auf einer <a href="Zahlengerade" title="Zahlengerade">Zahlengeraden</a> darstellen lässt, lässt sich die Menge <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f9add4085095b9b6d28d045fd9c92c2c09f549a7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span> der komplexen Zahlen als Punkte auf einer Ebene (komplexe Ebene, gaußsche Zahlenebene) darstellen. Da die komplexen Zahlen einen <a href="Dimension_(Vektorraum)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dimension (Vektorraum)">zweidimensionalen</a> reellen <a href="Vektorraum" title="Vektorraum">Vektorraum</a> definieren, kann die komplexe Ebene mit einem <a href="Kartesisches_Koordinatensystem" title="Kartesisches Koordinatensystem">kartesischen Koordinatensystem</a> versehen werden, das von den beiden <a href="Vektor#Orthogonalität" title="Vektor">orthogonalen Vektoren</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/92d98b82a3778f043108d4e20960a9193df57cbf.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.162ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/18f0f09f6fc40e634d34aed6e205ac0f7a40e062.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.647ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> aufgespannt wird. Es ist üblich, innerhalb diesem die reellen Zahlen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/786849c765da7a84dbc3cce43e96aad58a5868dc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }" loading="lazy"></span> über eine waagerechte und die imaginären Zahlen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} \mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} \mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/22d10414b9e1fdaac0591e9314844c13575ca6d1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.325ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} \mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> über eine senkrechte Achse darzustellen. Eine komplexe Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3c85d4b2efaee1cda0c2eb0468a957f0c6f9874f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:10.288ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> mit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a,b\in \mathbb {R} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a,b\in \mathbb {R} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/fe0bf0e2324bac843fab916c46d1b3349017a616.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.78ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a,b\in \mathbb {R} }" loading="lazy"></span> besitzt dann die „horizontale Koordinate“ <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>a</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ffd2487510aa438433a2579450ab2b3d557e5edc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.23ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a}" loading="lazy"></span> und die „vertikale Koordinate“ <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle b}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>b</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle b}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f11423fbb2e967f986e36804a8ae4271734917c3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.998ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle b}" loading="lazy"></span>, wird also mit dem Zahlenpaar <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (a,b)\in \mathbb {R} ^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (a,b)\in \mathbb {R} ^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/548c6ba1fd1d323a5b61cf3a7418d60a814af8ff.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.644ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (a,b)\in \mathbb {R} ^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span> identifiziert. Entsprechend bildet <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \{1,\mathrm {i} \}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \{1,\mathrm {i} \}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b1d4e5220b7d66f4f3a21eea2dee523d9261a2eb.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.168ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \{1,\mathrm {i} \}}" loading="lazy"></span> eine <a href="Basis_(Vektorraum)" title="Basis (Vektorraum)">Basis</a> des <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/786849c765da7a84dbc3cce43e96aad58a5868dc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }" loading="lazy"></span>-Vektorraumes <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f9add4085095b9b6d28d045fd9c92c2c09f549a7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span>.
</p><p>Gemäß Definition entspricht die Addition komplexer Zahlen einer <a href="Vektoraddition" class="mw-redirect" title="Vektoraddition">Vektoraddition</a>, wobei man die Punkte in der Zahlenebene mit ihren <a href="Ortsvektor" title="Ortsvektor">Ortsvektoren</a> identifiziert. Die Subtraktion komplexer Zahlen entspricht einer Vektorsubtraktion.
Die Multiplikation ist in der gaußschen Ebene eine <a href="Drehstreckung" title="Drehstreckung">Drehstreckung</a>, was nach Einführung der Polarform weiter unten klarer werden sollte.
</p>
<p>Es gibt mehrere Möglichkeiten der Darstellung von komplexen Zahlen:
</p>
<ul><li>Darstellung in kartesischen Koordinaten <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (a,b)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (a,b)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d7e5710198f33b00695903460983021e75860e2c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.071ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (a,b)}" loading="lazy"></span>, gelegentlich auch <i>algebraische Form</i> genannt,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> als Summe des reellen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>a</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ffd2487510aa438433a2579450ab2b3d557e5edc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.23ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a}" loading="lazy"></span> und des rein imaginären Anteils <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle b}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>b</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle b}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f11423fbb2e967f986e36804a8ae4271734917c3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.998ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle b}" loading="lazy"></span> mit folgenden Schreibweisen, also<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>
<dl><dd><dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3c85d4b2efaee1cda0c2eb0468a957f0c6f9874f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:10.288ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> oder auch <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z=a+\mathrm {i} \,b\ }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>b</mi>
<mtext> </mtext>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z=a+\mathrm {i} \,b\ }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a7aa0d1c846773028cadd34692a94c49b592f51e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:10.869ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z=a+\mathrm {i} \,b\ }" loading="lazy"></span>.</dd></dl></dd></dl>
<ul><li>Darstellung in <a href="Polarkoordinaten" title="Polarkoordinaten">Polarkoordinaten</a> bzw. in <b>Polardarstellung</b> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (r,\varphi )}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (r,\varphi )}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/deec3051ba5a9c7e5b676df779673dfb5e37a0a3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.412ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (r,\varphi )}" loading="lazy"></span> als Produkt des absoluten Betrages <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>r</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0d1ecb613aa2984f0576f70f86650b7c2a132538.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.049ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r}" loading="lazy"></span> gedreht um den Winkel <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \varphi }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \varphi }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/33ee699558d09cf9d653f6351f9fda0b2f4aaa3e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.52ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \varphi }" loading="lazy"></span> mit folgenden Schreibweisen:
<ul><li><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z=r\,(\cos \varphi +\mathrm {i} \sin \varphi )}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>sin</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z=r\,(\cos \varphi +\mathrm {i} \sin \varphi )}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/451cf13fa6507610558c88e2c9098c1e2605fd4b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:21.087ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z=r\,(\cos \varphi +\mathrm {i} \sin \varphi )}" loading="lazy"></span>,</li>
<li><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z=r\,\operatorname {cis} \varphi }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>cis</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z=r\,\operatorname {cis} \varphi }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/cde148a49862eff0eafef48aff3f47449544c5da.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.512ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z=r\,\operatorname {cis} \varphi }" loading="lazy"></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z=r\;\mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} \varphi }.}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<mspace width="thickmathspace"></mspace>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>.</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z=r\;\mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} \varphi }.}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a105e6763ba16b3a81ffd64a855c412273859cef.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:9.324ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z=r\;\mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} \varphi }.}" loading="lazy"></span></li></ul></li></ul>
<p>Hierbei wird der Faktor <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} \varphi }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} \varphi }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/01a9db1b709cde51eda36fefe929683fd4d8a7b7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.797ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} \varphi }}" loading="lazy"></span> als <b>Phasenfaktor</b> und der Winkel <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \varphi }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \varphi }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/33ee699558d09cf9d653f6351f9fda0b2f4aaa3e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.52ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \varphi }" loading="lazy"></span> auch als <i>Argument</i> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \varphi =\arg(z)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>arg</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \varphi =\arg(z)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e927696027bdfcb2f24cba5ab456f7d6c2d21640.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.753ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \varphi =\arg(z)}" loading="lazy"></span> der komplexen Zahl (in Polardarstellung) bezeichnet. Hintergrund dieser Darstellung ist die <a href="Eulersche_Formel" title="Eulersche Formel">Eulersche Formel</a>, die über die komplexen Zahlen einen fundamentalen Zusammenhang zwischen der natürlichen Exponentialfunktion und den trigonometrischen Funktionen herstellt. Alle oberen Schreibweisen stellen demnach exakt den gleichen Sachverhalt dar. Es ist zu beachten, dass die komplexe Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z=0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z=0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b92bfc06485cc90286474b14a516a68d8bfdd7b3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.349ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z=0}" loading="lazy"></span> kein Argument besitzt, weshalb hier keine Darstellung in Polarkoordinaten im oberen Sinne möglich ist.
</p><p>Eine Umwandlung von kartesischer Form in Polarform ist mittels <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 0\not =z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} =|z|{\mathrm {e} }^{\mathrm {i} \varphi }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>≠</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 0\not =z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} =|z|{\mathrm {e} }^{\mathrm {i} \varphi }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/448829b127286ca9d3b9d4ef7fa6ae73513de7f0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:22.826ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 0\not =z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} =|z|{\mathrm {e} }^{\mathrm {i} \varphi }}" loading="lazy"></span> und
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \varphi =\arg(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )=\operatorname {arctan2} (a,\,b)={\begin{cases}2\arctan {\dfrac {b}{{\sqrt {a^{2}\!+\!b^{2}}}+a}}&{\text{falls }}b\neq 0{\text{ oder }}a>0,\\\pi &{\text{falls }}b=0{\text{ und }}a<0\end{cases}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>arg</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>arctan2</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mtable columnalign="left left" rowspacing=".2em" columnspacing="1em" displaystyle="false">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>arctan</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mi>b</mi>
<mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<msup>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mspace width="negativethinmathspace"></mspace>
<mo>+</mo>
<mspace width="negativethinmathspace"></mspace>
<msup>
<mi>b</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtext>falls </mtext>
</mrow>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo>≠<!-- ≠ --></mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtext> oder </mtext>
</mrow>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>></mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtext>falls </mtext>
</mrow>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtext> und </mtext>
</mrow>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo><</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
<mo fence="true" stretchy="true" symmetric="true"></mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \varphi =\arg(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )=\operatorname {arctan2} (a,\,b)={\begin{cases}2\arctan {\dfrac {b}{{\sqrt {a^{2}\!+\!b^{2}}}+a}}&{\text{falls }}b\neq 0{\text{ oder }}a>0,\\\pi &{\text{falls }}b=0{\text{ und }}a<0\end{cases}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7c144c86bad1474903b45007bbfe508e905d38ab.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.171ex; width:83.845ex; height:9.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \varphi =\arg(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )=\operatorname {arctan2} (a,\,b)={\begin{cases}2\arctan {\dfrac {b}{{\sqrt {a^{2}\!+\!b^{2}}}+a}}&{\text{falls }}b\neq 0{\text{ oder }}a>0,\\\pi &{\text{falls }}b=0{\text{ und }}a<0\end{cases}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>möglich. Setzt man <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \ \varphi =\arg z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mtext> </mtext>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>arg</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \ \varphi =\arg z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/29e85e8fb95af7eea7094213f209b5589d06d383.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.911ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \ \varphi =\arg z}" loading="lazy"></span>, ergo <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \ \sin \varphi \!=\!{\tfrac {b}{\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}}\ }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mtext> </mtext>
<mi>sin</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mspace width="negativethinmathspace"></mspace>
<mo>=</mo>
<mspace width="negativethinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mi>b</mi>
<msqrt>
<msup>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<msup>
<mi>b</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</msqrt>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<mtext> </mtext>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \ \sin \varphi \!=\!{\tfrac {b}{\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}}\ }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1632e252b4474aa1abe4f026639d36f844943326.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:15.631ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \ \sin \varphi \!=\!{\tfrac {b}{\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}}\ }" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \ \cos \varphi \!=\!{\tfrac {a}{\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mtext> </mtext>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mspace width="negativethinmathspace"></mspace>
<mo>=</mo>
<mspace width="negativethinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mi>a</mi>
<msqrt>
<msup>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<msup>
<mi>b</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</msqrt>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \ \cos \varphi \!=\!{\tfrac {a}{\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a221def1c3fe404398ed944ad7aebf77e47c1e7a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:15.306ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \ \cos \varphi \!=\!{\tfrac {a}{\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}}}" loading="lazy"></span>, so ist die Gleichheit zur <a href="Arctan2" title="Arctan2">arctan2</a>-Funktion eine Konsequenz aus der <a href="Formelsammlung_Trigonometrie#Halbwinkelformeln" title="Formelsammlung Trigonometrie">Halbwinkelformel</a>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \tan {\frac {\varphi }{2}}={\frac {\sin \varphi }{1+\cos \varphi }}={\frac {\tfrac {b}{\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}}{1+{\tfrac {a}{\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}}}}={\frac {b}{{\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}+a}}\qquad ({\text{falls }}b\neq 0{\text{ oder }}a>0).}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>tan</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>sin</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mi>b</mi>
<msqrt>
<msup>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<msup>
<mi>b</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</msqrt>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
<mrow>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mi>a</mi>
<msqrt>
<msup>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<msup>
<mi>b</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</msqrt>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mi>b</mi>
<mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<msup>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<msup>
<mi>b</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mspace width="2em"></mspace>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtext>falls </mtext>
</mrow>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo>≠<!-- ≠ --></mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtext> oder </mtext>
</mrow>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>></mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>.</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \tan {\frac {\varphi }{2}}={\frac {\sin \varphi }{1+\cos \varphi }}={\frac {\tfrac {b}{\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}}{1+{\tfrac {a}{\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}}}}={\frac {b}{{\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}+a}}\qquad ({\text{falls }}b\neq 0{\text{ oder }}a>0).}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e3172e25635c18c44d090e7b6f437163197038a7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -5.005ex; width:79.573ex; height:11.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \tan {\frac {\varphi }{2}}={\frac {\sin \varphi }{1+\cos \varphi }}={\frac {\tfrac {b}{\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}}{1+{\tfrac {a}{\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}}}}={\frac {b}{{\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}+a}}\qquad ({\text{falls }}b\neq 0{\text{ oder }}a>0).}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Die linke Seite lässt sich im „vollen Winkelbereich des Hauptarguments“ <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle -\pi <\varphi <\pi }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mo><</mo>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mo><</mo>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle -\pi <\varphi <\pi }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6987bbe515a56311c8ff5b8b6b162b157c01581e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:12.189ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle -\pi <\varphi <\pi }" loading="lazy"></span> unter Anwendung des Arkustangens zu <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {\varphi }{2}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\tfrac {\varphi }{2}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ed781eb5fb48cf47b1f8404c9eda1956d33bf594.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:1.911ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {\varphi }{2}}}" loading="lazy"></span> umformen. Ist hingegen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle -{\tfrac {\pi }{2}}<\varphi <{\tfrac {\pi }{2}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<mo><</mo>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mo><</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle -{\tfrac {\pi }{2}}<\varphi <{\tfrac {\pi }{2}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/660a462fcf90da51e5d2c7b2f2d9f38c01c75ba1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:13.081ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle -{\tfrac {\pi }{2}}<\varphi <{\tfrac {\pi }{2}}}" loading="lazy"></span>, also <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span> auf der rechten Halbebene, so kann die Gleichung <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \tan \varphi ={\tfrac {b}{a}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>tan</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mi>b</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \tan \varphi ={\tfrac {b}{a}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f24ceeaa3688a991a26f91f40e1ea8432187b04c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:10.071ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \tan \varphi ={\tfrac {b}{a}}}" loading="lazy"></span> vereinfachend auch zu <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,\varphi =\arg z=\arctan {\tfrac {b}{a}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>arg</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>arctan</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mi>b</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,\varphi =\arg z=\arctan {\tfrac {b}{a}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0926a0eb6b7d5291809717fd49d0bdb266960315.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:21.375ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,\varphi =\arg z=\arctan {\tfrac {b}{a}}}" loading="lazy"></span> aufgelöst werden.
</p><p><br>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Komplexe_Konjugation">Komplexe Konjugation <span id="K_Kon"></span></h3></div>
<div class="hauptartikel" role="navigation"><span class="hauptartikel-pfeil" title="siehe" aria-hidden="true" role="presentation">→ </span><i><span class="hauptartikel-text">Hauptartikel</span>: <a href="Komplexe_Konjugation" title="Komplexe Konjugation">Komplexe Konjugation</a></i></div>
<p>Ändert man das <a href="Vorzeichen_(Zahl)" title="Vorzeichen (Zahl)">Vorzeichen</a> des Imaginärteils <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle b}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>b</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle b}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f11423fbb2e967f986e36804a8ae4271734917c3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.998ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle b}" loading="lazy"></span> einer komplexen Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} ,}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>,</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} ,}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/172ea1fc639c808ac2495c25d683ebc020e6407d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:10.935ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} ,}" loading="lazy"></span> so erhält man die zu <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span> <a href="Komplexe_Konjugation" title="Komplexe Konjugation">konjugiert komplexe</a> Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\bar {z}}=a-b\,\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">¯<!-- ¯ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\bar {z}}=a-b\,\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/27a220903ec7d365dab30d42363420f2db220bc4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:10.496ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\bar {z}}=a-b\,\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> (manchmal auch <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z^{*}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>∗<!-- ∗ --></mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z^{*}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a5b376dccffe5ae946dcdb7e98bf41beae28dc9e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.145ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z^{*}}" loading="lazy"></span> geschrieben).
</p><p>Die Konjugation <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} \to \mathbb {C} ,\,z\mapsto {\bar {z}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">↦<!-- ↦ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">¯<!-- ¯ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} \to \mathbb {C} ,\,z\mapsto {\bar {z}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/9a2c208aaada193ccfe021a5d064ad76dfd6cd7d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:14.39ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} \to \mathbb {C} ,\,z\mapsto {\bar {z}}}" loading="lazy"></span> ist ein <a href="Involution_(Mathematik)" title="Involution (Mathematik)">(involutorischer)</a> Körperautomorphismus, da sie mit Addition und Multiplikation verträglich ist, d. h., für alle <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y,z\in \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>y</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y,z\in \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b4d458df8b7d5159ad7da68daeb325f8a560c614.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.796ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y,z\in \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span> gilt
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\overline {y+z}}={\bar {y}}+{\bar {z}},\quad {\overline {y\cdot z}}={\bar {y}}\cdot {\bar {z}}.}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mrow>
<mi>y</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
</mrow>
<mo accent="false">¯<!-- ¯ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">¯<!-- ¯ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">¯<!-- ¯ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="1em"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mrow>
<mi>y</mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mi>z</mi>
</mrow>
<mo accent="false">¯<!-- ¯ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">¯<!-- ¯ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">¯<!-- ¯ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>.</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\overline {y+z}}={\bar {y}}+{\bar {z}},\quad {\overline {y\cdot z}}={\bar {y}}\cdot {\bar {z}}.}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8370e5c7177fc339a4fc32ee60c2c0d9f428ee14.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:29.162ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\overline {y+z}}={\bar {y}}+{\bar {z}},\quad {\overline {y\cdot z}}={\bar {y}}\cdot {\bar {z}}.}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>In der Polardarstellung hat die konjugiert komplexe Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\bar {z}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">¯<!-- ¯ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\bar {z}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/52dd0599595d539f7d757ec21da6c6e6ac3ad427.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.296ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\bar {z}}}" loading="lazy"></span> bei unverändertem Betrag gerade den negativen Winkel von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z.}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>.</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z.}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/fd7f273b229260c8fe9aa42378b0471336394cc2.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.735ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z.}" loading="lazy"></span> Man kann die Konjugation in der komplexen Zahlenebene also als die <i>Spiegelung an der reellen Achse</i> interpretieren. Insbesondere werden unter der Konjugation genau die reellen Zahlen auf sich selbst abgebildet.
</p><p>Das Produkt aus einer komplexen Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3c85d4b2efaee1cda0c2eb0468a957f0c6f9874f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:10.288ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> und ihrer komplex Konjugierten <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\bar {z}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">¯<!-- ¯ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\bar {z}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/52dd0599595d539f7d757ec21da6c6e6ac3ad427.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.296ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\bar {z}}}" loading="lazy"></span> ergibt das Quadrat ihres Betrages:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z\cdot {\bar {z}}=(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )(a-b\,\mathrm {i} )=a^{2}+b^{2}=|z|^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">¯<!-- ¯ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<msup>
<mi>b</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>z</mi>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z\cdot {\bar {z}}=(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )(a-b\,\mathrm {i} )=a^{2}+b^{2}=|z|^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/45a60739ccaa35e597f3cd0f92bd30a35c4bb1e8.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:39.793ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z\cdot {\bar {z}}=(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )(a-b\,\mathrm {i} )=a^{2}+b^{2}=|z|^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Die komplexen Zahlen bilden damit ein triviales Beispiel einer <a href="C*-Algebra" title="C*-Algebra">C*-Algebra</a>.
</p><p>Die Summe aus einer komplexen Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3c85d4b2efaee1cda0c2eb0468a957f0c6f9874f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:10.288ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> und ihrer komplex Konjugierten <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\bar {z}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">¯<!-- ¯ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\bar {z}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/52dd0599595d539f7d757ec21da6c6e6ac3ad427.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.296ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\bar {z}}}" loading="lazy"></span> ergibt das 2-Fache ihres Realteils:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z+{\bar {z}}=(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )+(a-b\,\mathrm {i} )=2a=2\,\operatorname {Re} {\!(z)}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">¯<!-- ¯ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>Re</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mspace width="negativethinmathspace"></mspace>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z+{\bar {z}}=(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )+(a-b\,\mathrm {i} )=2a=2\,\operatorname {Re} {\!(z)}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f6809461f69510e6e64713ebe73ad7651a1d9cdd.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:43.152ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z+{\bar {z}}=(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )+(a-b\,\mathrm {i} )=2a=2\,\operatorname {Re} {\!(z)}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Die Differenz aus einer komplexen Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3c85d4b2efaee1cda0c2eb0468a957f0c6f9874f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:10.288ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> und ihrer komplex Konjugierten <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\bar {z}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">¯<!-- ¯ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\bar {z}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/52dd0599595d539f7d757ec21da6c6e6ac3ad427.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.296ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\bar {z}}}" loading="lazy"></span> ergibt das <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {2i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {2i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0e6d3a1eae81386f1a536a96df3df72782b0685e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.809ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {2i} }" loading="lazy"></span>-Fache ihres Imaginärteils:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z-{\bar {z}}=(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )-(a-b\,\mathrm {i} )=2b\,\mathrm {i} =2\,\mathrm {i} \,\operatorname {Im} {\!(z)}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">¯<!-- ¯ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>b</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>Im</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mspace width="negativethinmathspace"></mspace>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z-{\bar {z}}=(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )-(a-b\,\mathrm {i} )=2b\,\mathrm {i} =2\,\mathrm {i} \,\operatorname {Im} {\!(z)}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1c166911b7f644aaa63d0f1acc3124677fadae32.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:45.02ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z-{\bar {z}}=(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )-(a-b\,\mathrm {i} )=2b\,\mathrm {i} =2\,\mathrm {i} \,\operatorname {Im} {\!(z)}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Als_normierter,_metrischer_und_topologischer_Raum"><span id="Als_normierter.2C_metrischer_und_topologischer_Raum"></span>Als normierter, metrischer und topologischer Raum</h3></div>
<p>Die durch die Abstandsfunktion <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d_{\mathbb {C} }(z_{1},z_{2}):=|z_{1}-z_{2}|}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>d</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>,</mo>
<msub>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>:=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<msub>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d_{\mathbb {C} }(z_{1},z_{2}):=|z_{1}-z_{2}|}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ad29edd3e577ac34070109c0361231cd0baf0912.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:21.892ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d_{\mathbb {C} }(z_{1},z_{2}):=|z_{1}-z_{2}|}" loading="lazy"></span> induzierte <a href="Metrischer_Raum" title="Metrischer Raum">Metrik</a> versieht den komplexen Vektorraum <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f9add4085095b9b6d28d045fd9c92c2c09f549a7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span> mit seiner <a href="Standardtopologie" class="mw-redirect" title="Standardtopologie">Standardtopologie</a>. Sie stimmt mit der <a href="Produkttopologie" title="Produkttopologie">Produkttopologie</a> von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} \times \mathbb {R} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>×<!-- × --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} \times \mathbb {R} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/eb99f01c438a62e4ac5af8cff4eb402739ed67a8.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.197ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} \times \mathbb {R} }" loading="lazy"></span> überein, so wie auch die <a href="Einschr%C3%A4nkung" title="Einschränkung">Einschränkung</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d_{\mathbb {R} }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>d</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d_{\mathbb {R} }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/417fef36f551f6a27dccc2c45dab6baf3c4efa2f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.628ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d_{\mathbb {R} }}" loading="lazy"></span> von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d_{\mathbb {C} }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>d</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d_{\mathbb {C} }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/9d0fe1d937310b9f67cad6d8868a4ee3bf9069f1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.628ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d_{\mathbb {C} }}" loading="lazy"></span> auf <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/786849c765da7a84dbc3cce43e96aad58a5868dc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }" loading="lazy"></span> mit der Standardmetrik auf <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/786849c765da7a84dbc3cce43e96aad58a5868dc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }" loading="lazy"></span> übereinstimmt. Der <span id="Betrag"></span> Betrag einer komplexen Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z=a+b\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z=a+b\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2d7f54052b27c21d6073ea59a31e499ea689970f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:9.901ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z=a+b\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> berechnet sich durch <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |z|:={\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>:=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<msup>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<msup>
<mi>b</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |z|:={\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d9203a69cefa2e4407b9be2751f54b00a75e13e5.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:15.627ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |z|:={\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}}" loading="lazy"></span>, wobei der nichtnegative Wert der Quadratwurzel gewählt wird. Zum Beispiel gilt
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |12+5\mathrm {i} |={\sqrt {12^{2}+5^{2}}}={\sqrt {144+25}}={\sqrt {169}}=13.}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mn>12</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>5</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<msup>
<mn>12</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<msup>
<mn>5</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<mn>144</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>25</mn>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<mn>169</mn>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>13.</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |12+5\mathrm {i} |={\sqrt {12^{2}+5^{2}}}={\sqrt {144+25}}={\sqrt {169}}=13.}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/328f2f9fbd98af92a4837e37c1b815d1a4ad9786.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:50.406ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |12+5\mathrm {i} |={\sqrt {12^{2}+5^{2}}}={\sqrt {144+25}}={\sqrt {169}}=13.}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Beide Räume, <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f9add4085095b9b6d28d045fd9c92c2c09f549a7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span> sowie <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/786849c765da7a84dbc3cce43e96aad58a5868dc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }" loading="lazy"></span>, sind <a href="Vollst%C3%A4ndiger_Raum" title="Vollständiger Raum">vollständig</a> unter diesen Metriken. Auf beiden Räumen lässt sich der topologische Begriff der <a href="Stetige_Funktion" title="Stetige Funktion">Stetigkeit</a> zu <a href="Analysis" title="Analysis">analytischen</a> Begriffen wie <a href="Differentialrechnung" title="Differentialrechnung">Differentiation</a> und <a href="Integralrechnung" title="Integralrechnung">Integration</a> erweitern.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ordnung">Ordnung</h3></div>
<p><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f9add4085095b9b6d28d045fd9c92c2c09f549a7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span> ist im Gegensatz zu <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/786849c765da7a84dbc3cce43e96aad58a5868dc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }" loading="lazy"></span> kein <a href="Geordneter_K%C3%B6rper" title="Geordneter Körper">geordneter Körper</a>, d. h., es gibt keine mit der Körperstruktur verträgliche lineare Ordnungsrelation auf <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f9add4085095b9b6d28d045fd9c92c2c09f549a7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span>. Von zwei unterschiedlichen komplexen Zahlen kann man daher im Allgemeinen nicht sinnvoll (bezogen auf die Addition und Multiplikation in <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f9add4085095b9b6d28d045fd9c92c2c09f549a7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span>) festlegen, welche von beiden die „größere“ bzw. die „kleinere“ Zahl ist.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Weitere_Eigenschaften">Weitere Eigenschaften</h3></div>
<ul><li>Der Körper <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f9add4085095b9b6d28d045fd9c92c2c09f549a7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span> der komplexen Zahlen ist einerseits ein Oberkörper von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/786849c765da7a84dbc3cce43e96aad58a5868dc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }" loading="lazy"></span>, andererseits ein zweidimensionaler <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/786849c765da7a84dbc3cce43e96aad58a5868dc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }" loading="lazy"></span>-<a href="Vektorraum" title="Vektorraum">Vektorraum</a>.</span> Der <a href="Isomorphismus" title="Isomorphismus">Isomorphismus</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} \cong \mathbb {R} ^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>≅<!-- ≅ --></mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} \cong \mathbb {R} ^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0746a9a1a63d1a9766d88ccb945d92daae386517.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.509ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} \cong \mathbb {R} ^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span> wird auch als natürliche Identifikation bezeichnet. In der Regel nutzt man dies auch, um <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f9add4085095b9b6d28d045fd9c92c2c09f549a7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span> formell als <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e150115ab9f63023215109595b76686a1ff890fd.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.732ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span> mit der entsprechenden <a href="#Multiplikation">komplexen Multiplikation</a> zu <i>definieren</i> und dann <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} :=(0,1)^{\mathrm {T} }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>:=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} :=(0,1)^{\mathrm {T} }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f4ebd37a159f98228752b608c3bcaf4222893805.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.979ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} :=(0,1)^{\mathrm {T} }}" loading="lazy"></span> zu setzen. Dabei wird gleichzeitig festgelegt:</li></ul>
<ol><li>Die Drehung der komplexen Ebene am Ursprung um den positiven Winkel <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle +{\tfrac {\pi }{2}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle +{\tfrac {\pi }{2}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6d907696021fff2f7a76b1f6d592702ca2b971bb.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:3.586ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle +{\tfrac {\pi }{2}}}" loading="lazy"></span> führt die positive reelle <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle +1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle +1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d04cf05c67d41d9f39dabf6a90722ce860a76958.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:2.971ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle +1}" loading="lazy"></span> in die positiv-imaginäre Einheit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle +\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle +\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/db09184173592ebced6ca947acd4e9854a6c3d7b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:2.455ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle +\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> über.</li>
<li>Wenn die positiv-reelle Halbachse in der komplexen Ebene nach rechts geht, dann legt man die positiv-imaginäre Halbachse nach oben. Das ist in Einklang mit dem <a href="Drehrichtung#Mathematische_Definitionen_bezüglich_Koordinatensystemen" title="Drehrichtung">mathematisch positiven Drehsinn</a>.</li></ol>
<ul><li>Die <a href="K%C3%B6rpererweiterung" title="Körpererweiterung">Körpererweiterung</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} /\mathbb {R} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>/</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} /\mathbb {R} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/da51849166ec5cd2858339edbf644b39449b183a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.519ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} /\mathbb {R} }" loading="lazy"></span> ist vom Grad <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle [\mathbb {C} :\mathbb {R} ]=2}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">[</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>:</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">]</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle [\mathbb {C} :\mathbb {R} ]=2}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ca0d230d77b8b6b954c39a9bd67d9ccb31e5547f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.848ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle [\mathbb {C} :\mathbb {R} ]=2}" loading="lazy"></span>; genauer ist <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f9add4085095b9b6d28d045fd9c92c2c09f549a7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span> isomorph zum <a href="Faktorring" title="Faktorring">Faktorring</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} [X]/(X^{2}+1)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">[</mo>
<mi>X</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">]</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>/</mo>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msup>
<mi>X</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} [X]/(X^{2}+1)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4a9561fb97d235fa5d9d975ea50b9ac958058410.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:14.977ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} [X]/(X^{2}+1)}" loading="lazy"></span>, wobei <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X^{2}+1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>X</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X^{2}+1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/759c679330a1c67db74a3da9ee5cca488de3a589.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:7.054ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X^{2}+1}" loading="lazy"></span> das <a href="Minimalpolynom_(K%C3%B6rpertheorie)" title="Minimalpolynom (Körpertheorie)">Minimalpolynom</a> von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/18f0f09f6fc40e634d34aed6e205ac0f7a40e062.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.647ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> über <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/786849c765da7a84dbc3cce43e96aad58a5868dc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }" loading="lazy"></span> ist. Ferner bildet <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f9add4085095b9b6d28d045fd9c92c2c09f549a7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span> bereits den <a href="Algebraischer_Abschluss" title="Algebraischer Abschluss">algebraischen Abschluss</a> von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/786849c765da7a84dbc3cce43e96aad58a5868dc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }" loading="lazy"></span>.</li>
<li>Als <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/786849c765da7a84dbc3cce43e96aad58a5868dc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }" loading="lazy"></span>-Vektorraum besitzt <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f9add4085095b9b6d28d045fd9c92c2c09f549a7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span> die Basis <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \{1,\mathrm {i} \}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \{1,\mathrm {i} \}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b1d4e5220b7d66f4f3a21eea2dee523d9261a2eb.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.168ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \{1,\mathrm {i} \}}" loading="lazy"></span>. Daneben ist <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f9add4085095b9b6d28d045fd9c92c2c09f549a7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span> wie jeder Körper auch ein Vektorraum über sich selbst, also ein eindimensionaler <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f9add4085095b9b6d28d045fd9c92c2c09f549a7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span>-Vektorraum</span> mit Basis <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \{1\}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \{1\}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/5acdcac635f883f8b4f0a01aa03b16b22f23b124.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.487ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \{1\}}" loading="lazy"></span>.</li>
<li><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/18f0f09f6fc40e634d34aed6e205ac0f7a40e062.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.647ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle -\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle -\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c8ec3934b68cc5430cd1201cae5c62f7c9528127.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:2.455ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle -\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> sind genau die Lösungen der <a href="Quadratische_Gleichung" title="Quadratische Gleichung">quadratischen Gleichung</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x^{2}+1=0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x^{2}+1=0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e01c67127b28bb80e2102c934d0d01daa5c20a61.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:10.648ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x^{2}+1=0}" loading="lazy"></span>. In diesem Sinne kann <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/18f0f09f6fc40e634d34aed6e205ac0f7a40e062.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.647ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> (aber auch <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {-i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {-i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c501d3a6571444365da1f551b852054077c467e2.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:2.455ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {-i} }" loading="lazy"></span>) als „<a href="Quadratwurzel" title="Quadratwurzel">Wurzel</a> aus <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle -1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle -1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/704fb0427140d054dd267925495e78164fee9aac.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:2.971ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle -1}" loading="lazy"></span>“ aufgefasst werden.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Anm 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rechenregeln">Rechenregeln</h2></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Addition">Addition <span id="A_Add"></span></h3></div>
<p>Für zwei komplexe Zahlen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z=a+b\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z=a+b\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2d7f54052b27c21d6073ea59a31e499ea689970f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:9.901ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z=a+b\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle w=c+d\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>w</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>c</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>d</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle w=c+d\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c996b266a862d60ec5a49177851efcd9c7fe54bd.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:10.473ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle w=c+d\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> gilt
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z+w=(a+c)+(b+d)\,\mathrm {i} \ }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>w</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>c</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>d</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mtext> </mtext>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z+w=(a+c)+(b+d)\,\mathrm {i} \ }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/223fef29156bca6db8671f8581a3bc440775c8aa.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:26.896ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z+w=(a+c)+(b+d)\,\mathrm {i} \ }" loading="lazy"></span>.</dd></dl>
<p>Addition und Subtraktion sind in Polardarstellung nicht ohne Weiteres möglich. Es ist vorher eine Umrechnung in die kartesische Form und ggf. danach eine Rückrechnung in die Polarform empfehlenswert. Für <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z_{1}=r_{1}e^{\mathrm {i} \varphi _{1}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<msub>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<msub>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z_{1}=r_{1}e^{\mathrm {i} \varphi _{1}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/75ba4d6279c787b1c8c55d17d4a175095d16184e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:11.016ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z_{1}=r_{1}e^{\mathrm {i} \varphi _{1}}}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z_{2}=r_{2}e^{\mathrm {i} \varphi _{2}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<msub>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<msub>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z_{2}=r_{2}e^{\mathrm {i} \varphi _{2}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d386f15f7adde0cef3b9aa4097509499a92a9b56.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:11.016ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z_{2}=r_{2}e^{\mathrm {i} \varphi _{2}}}" loading="lazy"></span> erhält man
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z_{1}\pm z_{2}=r\cdot \mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} \varphi }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>±<!-- ± --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z_{1}\pm z_{2}=r\cdot \mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} \varphi }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bc7d5db76f3711a07c0b4c05519b37a30a9c0398.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:15.734ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z_{1}\pm z_{2}=r\cdot \mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} \varphi }}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>mit
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r\ :={\sqrt {r_{1}^{2}+r_{2}^{2}\pm 2r_{1}r_{2}\cos(\varphi _{1}-\varphi _{2})}}\quad }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>r</mi>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mo>:=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<msubsup>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mo>+</mo>
<msubsup>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mo>±<!-- ± --></mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<msub>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<msub>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
<mspace width="1em"></mspace>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r\ :={\sqrt {r_{1}^{2}+r_{2}^{2}\pm 2r_{1}r_{2}\cos(\varphi _{1}-\varphi _{2})}}\quad }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e0dcb8d87a3ca73f9a11bfad6a1cf525463fb66a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:38.572ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r\ :={\sqrt {r_{1}^{2}+r_{2}^{2}\pm 2r_{1}r_{2}\cos(\varphi _{1}-\varphi _{2})}}\quad }" loading="lazy"></span> und</dd>
<dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \varphi :=\operatorname {arctan2} \;\left(r_{1}\sin \varphi _{1}\pm r_{2}\sin \varphi _{2},\ r_{1}\cos \varphi _{1}\pm r_{2}\cos \varphi _{2}\right)\ }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mo>:=</mo>
<mi>arctan2</mi>
<mspace width="thickmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<msub>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mi>sin</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>±<!-- ± --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mi>sin</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>,</mo>
<mtext> </mtext>
<msub>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>±<!-- ± --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mtext> </mtext>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \varphi :=\operatorname {arctan2} \;\left(r_{1}\sin \varphi _{1}\pm r_{2}\sin \varphi _{2},\ r_{1}\cos \varphi _{1}\pm r_{2}\cos \varphi _{2}\right)\ }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/600f08c39077be61c2f024cf7bc7354895ba5d99.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:57.738ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \varphi :=\operatorname {arctan2} \;\left(r_{1}\sin \varphi _{1}\pm r_{2}\sin \varphi _{2},\ r_{1}\cos \varphi _{1}\pm r_{2}\cos \varphi _{2}\right)\ }" loading="lazy"></span> unter Nutzung der <a href="Arctan2" title="Arctan2">arctan2</a>-Funktion.</dd></dl>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multiplikation">Multiplikation <span id="A_Mul"></span></h3></div>
<p>Für zwei komplexen Zahlen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z=a+b\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z=a+b\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2d7f54052b27c21d6073ea59a31e499ea689970f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:9.901ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z=a+b\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle w=c+d\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>w</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>c</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>d</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle w=c+d\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c996b266a862d60ec5a49177851efcd9c7fe54bd.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:10.473ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle w=c+d\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> folgt durch direktes <a href="Ausmultiplizieren" class="mw-redirect" title="Ausmultiplizieren">Ausmultiplizieren</a>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}z\cdot w&=(a+b\mathrm {i} )\cdot (c+d\mathrm {i} )=(ac-bd)+(ad+bc)\mathrm {i} \end{aligned}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mi>w</mi>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mi></mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>c</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>d</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>c</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mi>d</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>d</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mi>c</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}z\cdot w&=(a+b\mathrm {i} )\cdot (c+d\mathrm {i} )=(ac-bd)+(ad+bc)\mathrm {i} \end{aligned}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4b60e76a1b1d9b1548fa533c108b8687a0a206ad.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:49.789ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}z\cdot w&=(a+b\mathrm {i} )\cdot (c+d\mathrm {i} )=(ac-bd)+(ad+bc)\mathrm {i} \end{aligned}}}" loading="lazy"></span>,</dd></dl>
<p>wobei im letzten Schritt <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{2}=-1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{2}=-1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1903180d4ecaf05f4aef81a8ad389025f89c9d34.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:7.77ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{2}=-1}" loading="lazy"></span> zu beachten ist.
</p><p>Für die Multiplikation zweier komplexer Zahlen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z_{1}=r_{1}e^{\mathrm {i} \varphi _{1}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<msub>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<msub>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z_{1}=r_{1}e^{\mathrm {i} \varphi _{1}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/75ba4d6279c787b1c8c55d17d4a175095d16184e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:11.016ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z_{1}=r_{1}e^{\mathrm {i} \varphi _{1}}}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z_{2}=r_{2}e^{\mathrm {i} \varphi _{2}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<msub>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<msub>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z_{2}=r_{2}e^{\mathrm {i} \varphi _{2}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d386f15f7adde0cef3b9aa4097509499a92a9b56.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:11.016ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z_{2}=r_{2}e^{\mathrm {i} \varphi _{2}}}" loading="lazy"></span> in Polarform gilt<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z_{1}\cdot z_{2}=r_{1}r_{2}\cdot \mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} (\varphi _{1}+\varphi _{2})}\ }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<msub>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<msub>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>+</mo>
<msub>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mtext> </mtext>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z_{1}\cdot z_{2}=r_{1}r_{2}\cdot \mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} (\varphi _{1}+\varphi _{2})}\ }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/66fc35a92d4bdb82aaf22af83df254663327dcbb.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:23.607ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z_{1}\cdot z_{2}=r_{1}r_{2}\cdot \mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} (\varphi _{1}+\varphi _{2})}\ }" loading="lazy"></span>.</dd></dl>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Division">Division <span id="A_Div"></span></h3></div>
<p>Für die Division einer komplexen Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span> durch eine komplexe Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle w\neq 0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>w</mi>
<mo>≠<!-- ≠ --></mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle w\neq 0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d46cad72cecacc5589e98dd8f487e7723a112ceb.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.925ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle w\neq 0}" loading="lazy"></span> <a href="K%C3%BCrzen" title="Kürzen">erweitert</a> man den Bruch mit der zum Nenner <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle w}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>w</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle w}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/88b1e0c8e1be5ebe69d18a8010676fa42d7961e6.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.664ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle w}" loading="lazy"></span> <a href="#K_Kon">konjugiert komplexen</a> Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\bar {w}}=c-d\,\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>w</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">¯<!-- ¯ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>c</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>d</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\bar {w}}=c-d\,\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/db186a56af8168fc274f4a4803992bb6a83fb3a8.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:10.86ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\bar {w}}=c-d\,\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span>. Der Nenner wird dadurch reell (und ist das Quadrat des Betrages von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle c+d\,\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>c</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>d</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle c+d\,\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d1fe4134897d4eb804401d8d20cec598626b175f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:6.097ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle c+d\,\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span>) und die Division lässt sich auf den vorherigen Fall zurückführen:<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {z}{w}}={\frac {z\cdot {\bar {w}}}{\underbrace {w\cdot {\bar {w}}} _{\text{reell}}}}={\frac {(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )(c-d\,\mathrm {i} )}{(c+d\,\mathrm {i} )(c-d\,\mathrm {i} )}}={\frac {ac+bd}{c^{2}+d^{2}}}+{\frac {bc-ad}{c^{2}+d^{2}}}\,\mathrm {i} \ .}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mi>z</mi>
<mi>w</mi>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>w</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">¯<!-- ¯ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<munder>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OP MJX-fixedlimits">
<munder>
<mrow>
<mi>w</mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>w</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">¯<!-- ¯ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>⏟<!-- ⏟ --></mo>
</munder>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtext>reell</mtext>
</mrow>
</munder>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>c</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>d</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>c</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>d</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>c</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>d</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>c</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<msup>
<mi>c</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<msup>
<mi>d</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>b</mi>
<mi>c</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<msup>
<mi>c</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<msup>
<mi>d</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mo>.</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {z}{w}}={\frac {z\cdot {\bar {w}}}{\underbrace {w\cdot {\bar {w}}} _{\text{reell}}}}={\frac {(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )(c-d\,\mathrm {i} )}{(c+d\,\mathrm {i} )(c-d\,\mathrm {i} )}}={\frac {ac+bd}{c^{2}+d^{2}}}+{\frac {bc-ad}{c^{2}+d^{2}}}\,\mathrm {i} \ .}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1dd74e1304460fdb5adb5c4caf611f09f64cdf2c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -5.338ex; width:55.648ex; height:9.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {z}{w}}={\frac {z\cdot {\bar {w}}}{\underbrace {w\cdot {\bar {w}}} _{\text{reell}}}}={\frac {(a+b\,\mathrm {i} )(c-d\,\mathrm {i} )}{(c+d\,\mathrm {i} )(c-d\,\mathrm {i} )}}={\frac {ac+bd}{c^{2}+d^{2}}}+{\frac {bc-ad}{c^{2}+d^{2}}}\,\mathrm {i} \ .}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Alternativ gilt entsprechend zur Multiplikation bei <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r_{2}\neq 0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>≠<!-- ≠ --></mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r_{2}\neq 0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6c3aa55ea004066cc9667ba4c350198358866399.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.364ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r_{2}\neq 0}" loading="lazy"></span>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {z_{1}}{z_{2}}}={\frac {r_{1}}{r_{2}}}\cdot \mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} (\varphi _{1}-\varphi _{2})}\ .}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<msub>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<msub>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<msub>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<msub>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mo>.</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {z_{1}}{z_{2}}}={\frac {r_{1}}{r_{2}}}\cdot \mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} (\varphi _{1}-\varphi _{2})}\ .}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1a68c16f2d055d9ccc25f794bc8a419b1d3c6fb0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:20.008ex; height:5.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {z_{1}}{z_{2}}}={\frac {r_{1}}{r_{2}}}\cdot \mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} (\varphi _{1}-\varphi _{2})}\ .}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rechenbeispiele">Rechenbeispiele</h3></div>
<p>Addition:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (5+3\mathrm {i} )+(4+2\mathrm {i} )=(5+4)+(3+2)\mathrm {i} =9+5\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>5</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>3</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>4</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>5</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>4</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>3</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>9</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>5</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (5+3\mathrm {i} )+(4+2\mathrm {i} )=(5+4)+(3+2)\mathrm {i} =9+5\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0c505deceb078a157adfc3962b18b359c48f37b7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:47.529ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (5+3\mathrm {i} )+(4+2\mathrm {i} )=(5+4)+(3+2)\mathrm {i} =9+5\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Subtraktion:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (5+3\mathrm {i} )-(4+2\mathrm {i} )=(5-4)+(3-2)\mathrm {i} =1+1\mathrm {i} =1+\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>5</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>3</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>4</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>5</mn>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>4</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>3</mn>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (5+3\mathrm {i} )-(4+2\mathrm {i} )=(5-4)+(3-2)\mathrm {i} =1+1\mathrm {i} =1+\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b540dc8154916fa0d495b4e8bad7804201c6c214.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:55.277ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (5+3\mathrm {i} )-(4+2\mathrm {i} )=(5-4)+(3-2)\mathrm {i} =1+1\mathrm {i} =1+\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Multiplikation:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (5+3\mathrm {i} )\cdot (4+2\mathrm {i} )=(5\cdot 4-3\cdot 2)+(5\cdot 2+3\cdot 4)\mathrm {i} =14+22\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>5</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>3</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>4</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>5</mn>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mn>4</mn>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>3</mn>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>5</mn>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>3</mn>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mn>4</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>14</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>22</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (5+3\mathrm {i} )\cdot (4+2\mathrm {i} )=(5\cdot 4-3\cdot 2)+(5\cdot 2+3\cdot 4)\mathrm {i} =14+22\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c37431262fb77ab4500bb6e1c1e9c220ba13dcf9.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:60.059ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (5+3\mathrm {i} )\cdot (4+2\mathrm {i} )=(5\cdot 4-3\cdot 2)+(5\cdot 2+3\cdot 4)\mathrm {i} =14+22\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Division:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {(5+3\mathrm {i} )}{(4+2\mathrm {i} )}}={\frac {(5+3\mathrm {i} )}{(4+2\mathrm {i} )}}\cdot {\frac {(4-2\mathrm {i} )}{(4-2\mathrm {i} )}}={\frac {(20+6)+(12\mathrm {i} -10\mathrm {i} )}{4^{2}+2^{2}}}={\frac {26+2\mathrm {i} }{20}}={\frac {26}{20}}+{\frac {2}{20}}\mathrm {i} ={\frac {13}{10}}+{\frac {\mathrm {i} }{10}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>5</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>3</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>4</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>5</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>3</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>4</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>4</mn>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>4</mn>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>20</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>6</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>12</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>10</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<msup>
<mn>4</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<msup>
<mn>2</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mn>26</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mn>20</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>26</mn>
<mn>20</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>2</mn>
<mn>20</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>13</mn>
<mn>10</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mn>10</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {(5+3\mathrm {i} )}{(4+2\mathrm {i} )}}={\frac {(5+3\mathrm {i} )}{(4+2\mathrm {i} )}}\cdot {\frac {(4-2\mathrm {i} )}{(4-2\mathrm {i} )}}={\frac {(20+6)+(12\mathrm {i} -10\mathrm {i} )}{4^{2}+2^{2}}}={\frac {26+2\mathrm {i} }{20}}={\frac {26}{20}}+{\frac {2}{20}}\mathrm {i} ={\frac {13}{10}}+{\frac {\mathrm {i} }{10}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4fc2dcd1e71e0ced97637276d72d9482c88795a0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:91.733ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {(5+3\mathrm {i} )}{(4+2\mathrm {i} )}}={\frac {(5+3\mathrm {i} )}{(4+2\mathrm {i} )}}\cdot {\frac {(4-2\mathrm {i} )}{(4-2\mathrm {i} )}}={\frac {(20+6)+(12\mathrm {i} -10\mathrm {i} )}{4^{2}+2^{2}}}={\frac {26+2\mathrm {i} }{20}}={\frac {26}{20}}+{\frac {2}{20}}\mathrm {i} ={\frac {13}{10}}+{\frac {\mathrm {i} }{10}}}" loading="lazy"></span>.</dd></dl>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Potenzen,_Wurzeln_und_Logarithmen"><span id="Potenzen.2C_Wurzeln_und_Logarithmen"></span>Potenzen, Wurzeln und Logarithmen</h3></div>
<p>Zu den Rechenoperationen der dritten Stufe gehören <a href="Potenz_(Mathematik)" title="Potenz (Mathematik)">Potenzieren</a>, <a href="Wurzel_(Mathematik)" title="Wurzel (Mathematik)">Wurzelziehen</a> (Radizieren) und <a href="Logarithmus" title="Logarithmus">Logarithmieren</a>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Logarithmen">Logarithmen</h4></div>
<p>Der <a href="Logarithmus#Komplexer_Logarithmus" title="Logarithmus">komplexe natürliche Logarithmus</a> ist (anders als der <a href="Logarithmus#Definition" title="Logarithmus">reelle</a> auf <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{+}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>+</mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{+}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/97dc5e850d079061c24290bac160c8d3b62ee139.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.189ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{+}}" loading="lazy"></span>) nicht eindeutig. Durch Hinzufügen von Bedingungen kann allerdings wieder eine Eindeutigkeit erreicht werden. Man spricht dann vom sog. <i>Hauptzweig</i> des Logarithmus. Eine Eigenschaft dieses Hauptzweiges ist, dass seine Einschränkung auf <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{+}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>+</mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{+}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/97dc5e850d079061c24290bac160c8d3b62ee139.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.189ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{+}}" loading="lazy"></span> wieder dem reellen natürlichen Logarithmus entspricht.
</p><p>Eine komplexe Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle w}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>w</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle w}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/88b1e0c8e1be5ebe69d18a8010676fa42d7961e6.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.664ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle w}" loading="lazy"></span> heißt Logarithmus der komplexen Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span>, wenn
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{w}=z.}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>w</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>.</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{w}=z.}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1165b7c995d98ecb55a6dc1ee5d84a565c7ef85b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.275ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{w}=z.}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Mit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle w}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>w</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle w}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/88b1e0c8e1be5ebe69d18a8010676fa42d7961e6.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.664ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle w}" loading="lazy"></span> ist auch jede Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle w+2\pi \mathrm {i} k}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>w</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>k</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle w+2\pi \mathrm {i} k}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f31f2e3dbbb50291c301dc02c2b3aa066f806a8a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:8.857ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle w+2\pi \mathrm {i} k}" loading="lazy"></span> mit beliebigem <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k\in \mathbb {Z} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">Z</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k\in \mathbb {Z} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/59a12237af5f2ec5fc7c5023f439266bae1380f7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.602ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k\in \mathbb {Z} }" loading="lazy"></span> ein Logarithmus von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span>. Man arbeitet daher mit <a href="Logarithmus#Komplexer_Logarithmus" title="Logarithmus">Hauptwerten</a>, d. h. mit Werten eines bestimmten Streifens der komplexen Ebene.
</p><p>Der Hauptwert des natürlichen Logarithmus der komplexen Zahl
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z=r\mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} \varphi }\in \mathbb {C} ^{\times }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>×<!-- × --></mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z=r\mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} \varphi }\in \mathbb {C} ^{\times }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/fcb452ecd3cbb77704199828f79b09606f403ffe.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:14.062ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z=r\mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} \varphi }\in \mathbb {C} ^{\times }}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>ist<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {Log} (z)=\ln r+\mathrm {i} \varphi }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">L</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">g</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>ln</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {Log} (z)=\ln r+\mathrm {i} \varphi }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1ba6714897ba56c6e72a742da06c757d0c5c4828.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:18.156ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {Log} (z)=\ln r+\mathrm {i} \varphi }" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>mit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r>0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>r</mi>
<mo>></mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r>0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/23cbbcd53bd13620bc53490e3eec42790850b452.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.31ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r>0}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle -\pi <\varphi \leq \pi }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mo><</mo>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mo>≤<!-- ≤ --></mo>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle -\pi <\varphi \leq \pi }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b27eb4930922e649015e37b8d782b6b1ad7d55b9.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:12.189ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle -\pi <\varphi \leq \pi }" loading="lazy"></span>.
Anders formuliert: Der Hauptwert des natürlichen Logarithmus der komplexen Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z\in \mathbb {C} ^{\times }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>×<!-- × --></mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z\in \mathbb {C} ^{\times }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8232b7f77cce8dd9abf7820b72fb032829a6be17.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.118ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z\in \mathbb {C} ^{\times }}" loading="lazy"></span> ist
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {Log} (z)=\ln |z|+\mathrm {i} \,\arg(z),}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">L</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">g</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>ln</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>arg</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>,</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {Log} (z)=\ln |z|+\mathrm {i} \,\arg(z),}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/804808602310734ffc6f7cd6be703ff41a4f56fb.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:25.524ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {Log} (z)=\ln |z|+\mathrm {i} \,\arg(z),}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>wobei <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \arg(z)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>arg</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \arg(z)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/5d8bb9d3cf9c1a82f1666e4e72b6702b0cee4b21.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.134ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \arg(z)}" loading="lazy"></span> der Hauptwert des <a href="#Darstellung_von_komplexen_Zahlen_in_der_komplexen_Zahlenebene">Arguments</a> von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span> ist.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Für allgemeine <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z,w\in \mathbb {C} ^{\times }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>w</mi>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>×<!-- × --></mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z,w\in \mathbb {C} ^{\times }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/81be6621b9401171ded6780c7bfc7e0cbe789e92.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:9.816ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z,w\in \mathbb {C} ^{\times }}" loading="lazy"></span> gilt<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {Log} (zw)=\mathrm {Log} (z)+\mathrm {Log} (w)+2\pi \mathrm {i} h(z,w)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">L</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">g</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mi>w</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">L</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">g</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">L</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">g</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>w</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>h</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>w</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {Log} (zw)=\mathrm {Log} (z)+\mathrm {Log} (w)+2\pi \mathrm {i} h(z,w)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a21874b21289afac9be23288646aed5365df6458.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:41.121ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {Log} (zw)=\mathrm {Log} (z)+\mathrm {Log} (w)+2\pi \mathrm {i} h(z,w)}" loading="lazy"></span>,</dd></dl>
<p>wobei
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h(z,w)={\begin{cases}0,&\qquad -\pi <\mathrm {Arg} (z)+\mathrm {Arg} (w)\leq \pi ,\\1,&\qquad -2\pi <\mathrm {Arg} (z)+\mathrm {Arg} (w)\leq -\pi ,\\-1,&\qquad \pi <\mathrm {Arg} (z)+\mathrm {Arg} (w)\leq 2\pi .\end{cases}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>h</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>w</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mtable columnalign="left left" rowspacing=".2em" columnspacing="1em" displaystyle="false">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mspace width="2em"></mspace>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mo><</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">A</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">r</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">g</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">A</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">r</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">g</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>w</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>≤<!-- ≤ --></mo>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mo>,</mo>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mspace width="2em"></mspace>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mo><</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">A</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">r</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">g</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">A</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">r</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">g</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>w</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>≤<!-- ≤ --></mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mo>,</mo>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mspace width="2em"></mspace>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mo><</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">A</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">r</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">g</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">A</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">r</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">g</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>w</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>≤<!-- ≤ --></mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mo>.</mo>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
<mo fence="true" stretchy="true" symmetric="true"></mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h(z,w)={\begin{cases}0,&\qquad -\pi <\mathrm {Arg} (z)+\mathrm {Arg} (w)\leq \pi ,\\1,&\qquad -2\pi <\mathrm {Arg} (z)+\mathrm {Arg} (w)\leq -\pi ,\\-1,&\qquad \pi <\mathrm {Arg} (z)+\mathrm {Arg} (w)\leq 2\pi .\end{cases}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e78255c8bebda5d63b480355c7ca7cc8c686bb6f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.838ex; width:54.568ex; height:8.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h(z,w)={\begin{cases}0,&\qquad -\pi <\mathrm {Arg} (z)+\mathrm {Arg} (w)\leq \pi ,\\1,&\qquad -2\pi <\mathrm {Arg} (z)+\mathrm {Arg} (w)\leq -\pi ,\\-1,&\qquad \pi <\mathrm {Arg} (z)+\mathrm {Arg} (w)\leq 2\pi .\end{cases}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Insbesondere ist die aus der reellen Analysis bekannte Regel <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \ln(xy)=\ln(x)+\ln(y)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>ln</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>ln</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>ln</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \ln(xy)=\ln(x)+\ln(y)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0355349c928f66b54a3d404988d915e78404d9da.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:22.155ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \ln(xy)=\ln(x)+\ln(y)}" loading="lazy"></span> für <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x,y>0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>y</mi>
<mo>></mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x,y>0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6338d1f32a43c3d4a8b55b35cdf5a615063036ea.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.78ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x,y>0}" loading="lazy"></span> nicht allgemein für den Hauptzweig des Logarithmus gültig.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Potenzen">Potenzen</h4></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Natürliche_Exponenten"><span id="Nat.C3.BCrliche_Exponenten"></span>Natürliche Exponenten</h5></div>
<p>Für natürliche Zahlen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span> berechnet sich die <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span>-te Potenz in der polaren Form <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z=r\mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} \varphi }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z=r\mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} \varphi }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/03b744147cb2a7967298eba6803950e7068f36cc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:8.032ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z=r\mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} \varphi }}" loading="lazy"></span> zu<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z^{n}=r^{n}\cdot \mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} n\varphi }=r^{n}\cdot (\cos n\varphi +\mathrm {i} \cdot \sin n\varphi )}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mi>sin</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z^{n}=r^{n}\cdot \mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} n\varphi }=r^{n}\cdot (\cos n\varphi +\mathrm {i} \cdot \sin n\varphi )}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/24c402705be054a4ad7ceb80067811bf7abbd7b1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:39.728ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z^{n}=r^{n}\cdot \mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} n\varphi }=r^{n}\cdot (\cos n\varphi +\mathrm {i} \cdot \sin n\varphi )}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>(siehe den <a href="Moivrescher_Satz" title="Moivrescher Satz">Satz von de Moivre</a>) oder für die algebraische Form <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3c85d4b2efaee1cda0c2eb0468a957f0c6f9874f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:10.288ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z=a+b\,\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> mit Hilfe des <a href="Binomischer_Lehrsatz" title="Binomischer Lehrsatz">binomischen Satzes</a> zu
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z^{n}=\sum _{k=0, \atop k{\text{ gerade}}}^{n}{\binom {n}{k}}(-1)^{\frac {k}{2}}a^{n-k}b^{k}+\mathrm {i} \sum _{k=1, \atop k{\text{ ungerade}}}^{n}{\binom {n}{k}}(-1)^{\frac {k-1}{2}}a^{n-k}b^{k}.}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<munderover>
<mo>∑<!-- ∑ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac linethickness="0">
<mrow>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mi>k</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtext> gerade</mtext>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</munderover>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OPEN">
<mo maxsize="2.047em" minsize="2.047em">(</mo>
</mrow>
<mfrac linethickness="0">
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>k</mi>
</mfrac>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-CLOSE">
<mo maxsize="2.047em" minsize="2.047em">)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mi>k</mi>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</msup>
<msup>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>k</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<msup>
<mi>b</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<munderover>
<mo>∑<!-- ∑ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac linethickness="0">
<mrow>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mi>k</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtext> ungerade</mtext>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</munderover>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OPEN">
<mo maxsize="2.047em" minsize="2.047em">(</mo>
</mrow>
<mfrac linethickness="0">
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>k</mi>
</mfrac>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-CLOSE">
<mo maxsize="2.047em" minsize="2.047em">)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</msup>
<msup>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>k</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<msup>
<mi>b</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>.</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z^{n}=\sum _{k=0, \atop k{\text{ gerade}}}^{n}{\binom {n}{k}}(-1)^{\frac {k}{2}}a^{n-k}b^{k}+\mathrm {i} \sum _{k=1, \atop k{\text{ ungerade}}}^{n}{\binom {n}{k}}(-1)^{\frac {k-1}{2}}a^{n-k}b^{k}.}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d19016f013219b520bf7ce07424489fd3cbe1e5e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.671ex; width:61.188ex; height:8.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z^{n}=\sum _{k=0, \atop k{\text{ gerade}}}^{n}{\binom {n}{k}}(-1)^{\frac {k}{2}}a^{n-k}b^{k}+\mathrm {i} \sum _{k=1, \atop k{\text{ ungerade}}}^{n}{\binom {n}{k}}(-1)^{\frac {k-1}{2}}a^{n-k}b^{k}.}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Zum Beispiel gilt
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (1+\mathrm {i} )^{8}=(2\mathrm {i} )^{4}=(-4)^{2}=16}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>8</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>4</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>4</mn>
<msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>16</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (1+\mathrm {i} )^{8}=(2\mathrm {i} )^{4}=(-4)^{2}=16}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/62da66f86e380e6d54b1abc1ee62927cf18ffb16.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:29.64ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (1+\mathrm {i} )^{8}=(2\mathrm {i} )^{4}=(-4)^{2}=16}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>oder
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \textstyle (1+\mathrm {i} )^{8}={\Big (}{\binom {8}{0}}1^{0}\!1^{8}\!-{\binom {8}{2}}1^{2}\!1^{6}\!+{\binom {8}{4}}1^{4}\!1^{4}\!-{\binom {8}{6}}1^{6}\!1^{2}\!+{\binom {8}{8}}1^{8}\!1^{0}{\Big )}\;+\;{\Big (}{\binom {8}{1}}1^{1}\!1^{7}\!-{\binom {8}{3}}1^{3}\!1^{5}\!+{\binom {8}{5}}1^{5}\!1^{3}\!-{\binom {8}{7}}1^{7}\!1^{1}{\Big )}\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>8</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo maxsize="1.623em" minsize="1.623em">(</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OPEN">
<mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">(</mo>
</mrow>
<mfrac linethickness="0">
<mn>8</mn>
<mn>0</mn>
</mfrac>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-CLOSE">
<mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mspace width="negativethinmathspace"></mspace>
<msup>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>8</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mspace width="negativethinmathspace"></mspace>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OPEN">
<mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">(</mo>
</mrow>
<mfrac linethickness="0">
<mn>8</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-CLOSE">
<mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mspace width="negativethinmathspace"></mspace>
<msup>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>6</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mspace width="negativethinmathspace"></mspace>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OPEN">
<mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">(</mo>
</mrow>
<mfrac linethickness="0">
<mn>8</mn>
<mn>4</mn>
</mfrac>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-CLOSE">
<mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>4</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mspace width="negativethinmathspace"></mspace>
<msup>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>4</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mspace width="negativethinmathspace"></mspace>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OPEN">
<mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">(</mo>
</mrow>
<mfrac linethickness="0">
<mn>8</mn>
<mn>6</mn>
</mfrac>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-CLOSE">
<mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>6</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mspace width="negativethinmathspace"></mspace>
<msup>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mspace width="negativethinmathspace"></mspace>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OPEN">
<mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">(</mo>
</mrow>
<mfrac linethickness="0">
<mn>8</mn>
<mn>8</mn>
</mfrac>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-CLOSE">
<mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>8</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mspace width="negativethinmathspace"></mspace>
<msup>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo maxsize="1.623em" minsize="1.623em">)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mspace width="thickmathspace"></mspace>
<mo>+</mo>
<mspace width="thickmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo maxsize="1.623em" minsize="1.623em">(</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OPEN">
<mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">(</mo>
</mrow>
<mfrac linethickness="0">
<mn>8</mn>
<mn>1</mn>
</mfrac>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-CLOSE">
<mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mspace width="negativethinmathspace"></mspace>
<msup>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>7</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mspace width="negativethinmathspace"></mspace>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OPEN">
<mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">(</mo>
</mrow>
<mfrac linethickness="0">
<mn>8</mn>
<mn>3</mn>
</mfrac>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-CLOSE">
<mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>3</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mspace width="negativethinmathspace"></mspace>
<msup>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>5</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mspace width="negativethinmathspace"></mspace>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OPEN">
<mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">(</mo>
</mrow>
<mfrac linethickness="0">
<mn>8</mn>
<mn>5</mn>
</mfrac>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-CLOSE">
<mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>5</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
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<msup>
<mn>1</mn>
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<mspace width="negativethinmathspace"></mspace>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
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<mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">(</mo>
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<mo maxsize="1.623em" minsize="1.623em">)</mo>
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<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \textstyle (1+\mathrm {i} )^{8}={\Big (}{\binom {8}{0}}1^{0}\!1^{8}\!-{\binom {8}{2}}1^{2}\!1^{6}\!+{\binom {8}{4}}1^{4}\!1^{4}\!-{\binom {8}{6}}1^{6}\!1^{2}\!+{\binom {8}{8}}1^{8}\!1^{0}{\Big )}\;+\;{\Big (}{\binom {8}{1}}1^{1}\!1^{7}\!-{\binom {8}{3}}1^{3}\!1^{5}\!+{\binom {8}{5}}1^{5}\!1^{3}\!-{\binom {8}{7}}1^{7}\!1^{1}{\Big )}\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/9a759858c02fdfc7ffb618f258026b0c563eeea7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:101.096ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \textstyle (1+\mathrm {i} )^{8}={\Big (}{\binom {8}{0}}1^{0}\!1^{8}\!-{\binom {8}{2}}1^{2}\!1^{6}\!+{\binom {8}{4}}1^{4}\!1^{4}\!-{\binom {8}{6}}1^{6}\!1^{2}\!+{\binom {8}{8}}1^{8}\!1^{0}{\Big )}\;+\;{\Big (}{\binom {8}{1}}1^{1}\!1^{7}\!-{\binom {8}{3}}1^{3}\!1^{5}\!+{\binom {8}{5}}1^{5}\!1^{3}\!-{\binom {8}{7}}1^{7}\!1^{1}{\Big )}\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span></dd>
<dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \textstyle \qquad \quad \ ={\Big (}{\binom {8}{0}}\!-\!{\binom {8}{2}}\!+\!{\binom {8}{4}}\!-\!{\binom {8}{6}}\!+\!{\binom {8}{8}}{\Big )}\;+\;{\Big (}{\binom {8}{1}}\!-\!{\binom {8}{3}}\!+\!{\binom {8}{5}}\!-\!{\binom {8}{7}}{\Big )}\mathrm {i} }">
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<mn>8</mn>
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<mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">(</mo>
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<mn>8</mn>
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<mo maxsize="1.623em" minsize="1.623em">)</mo>
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \textstyle \qquad \quad \ ={\Big (}{\binom {8}{0}}\!-\!{\binom {8}{2}}\!+\!{\binom {8}{4}}\!-\!{\binom {8}{6}}\!+\!{\binom {8}{8}}{\Big )}\;+\;{\Big (}{\binom {8}{1}}\!-\!{\binom {8}{3}}\!+\!{\binom {8}{5}}\!-\!{\binom {8}{7}}{\Big )}\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f5ebda504977bd64fa6d21045bea4b428111a585.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:62.005ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \textstyle \qquad \quad \ ={\Big (}{\binom {8}{0}}\!-\!{\binom {8}{2}}\!+\!{\binom {8}{4}}\!-\!{\binom {8}{6}}\!+\!{\binom {8}{8}}{\Big )}\;+\;{\Big (}{\binom {8}{1}}\!-\!{\binom {8}{3}}\!+\!{\binom {8}{5}}\!-\!{\binom {8}{7}}{\Big )}\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span></dd>
<dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \qquad \quad \ =(1-28+70-28+1)+(8-56+56-8)\mathrm {i} =16.}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mspace width="2em"></mspace>
<mspace width="1em"></mspace>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>28</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>70</mn>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>28</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>8</mn>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>56</mn>
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<mn>56</mn>
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<mn>8</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
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<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \qquad \quad \ =(1-28+70-28+1)+(8-56+56-8)\mathrm {i} =16.}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/5c2b1ec8145fe6128772555e4b2fb806d4fda71a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:59.98ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \qquad \quad \ =(1-28+70-28+1)+(8-56+56-8)\mathrm {i} =16.}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Anwendung findet diese Formel zudem beim Beweis diverser <a href="Formelsammlung_Trigonometrie#Winkelfunktionen_für_weitere_Vielfache" title="Formelsammlung Trigonometrie">trigonometrischer Identitäten</a>. So erhält man, durch Vergleiche von Real- und Imaginärteil mit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r=1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>r</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r=1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2e6584ba3b7843583b757896c2f0686efc0489e5.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.31ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r=1}" loading="lazy"></span> im Satz von de Moivre, die Ausdrücke<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \cos(n\varphi )=\sum _{j=0}^{\left\lfloor {\frac {n}{2}}\right\rfloor }(-1)^{j}{n \choose 2j}\sin ^{2j}(\varphi )\;\cos ^{n-2j}(\varphi )}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
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<mi>sin</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>j</mi>
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</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \cos(n\varphi )=\sum _{j=0}^{\left\lfloor {\frac {n}{2}}\right\rfloor }(-1)^{j}{n \choose 2j}\sin ^{2j}(\varphi )\;\cos ^{n-2j}(\varphi )}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6e2b5f2d9b896169d166a8137fde787a2c5ee481.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.338ex; width:45.311ex; height:9.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \cos(n\varphi )=\sum _{j=0}^{\left\lfloor {\frac {n}{2}}\right\rfloor }(-1)^{j}{n \choose 2j}\sin ^{2j}(\varphi )\;\cos ^{n-2j}(\varphi )}" loading="lazy"></span>,</dd></dl>
<p>und
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sin(n\varphi )=\sum _{j=0}^{\left\lfloor {\frac {n-1}{2}}\right\rfloor }(-1)^{j}{n \choose 2j+1}\sin ^{2j+1}(\varphi )\;\cos ^{n-2j-1}(\varphi )}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>sin</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
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<mo>=</mo>
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<mn>0</mn>
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mo>⌊</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>⌋</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>j</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
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</msup>
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<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
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</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sin(n\varphi )=\sum _{j=0}^{\left\lfloor {\frac {n-1}{2}}\right\rfloor }(-1)^{j}{n \choose 2j+1}\sin ^{2j+1}(\varphi )\;\cos ^{n-2j-1}(\varphi )}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2842a2c8dd9cce83d3f6bbc78b8d9d281f0fb27b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.338ex; width:54.965ex; height:9.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sin(n\varphi )=\sum _{j=0}^{\left\lfloor {\frac {n-1}{2}}\right\rfloor }(-1)^{j}{n \choose 2j+1}\sin ^{2j+1}(\varphi )\;\cos ^{n-2j-1}(\varphi )}" loading="lazy"></span>.</dd></dl>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Beliebige_komplexe_Exponenten">Beliebige komplexe Exponenten</h5></div>
<p><span id="Beliebige_komplexe_Exponenten"></span>
Allgemein kann für <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z\neq 0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>≠<!-- ≠ --></mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z\neq 0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3b8b7eb2d2a30057811a7835502717d3d6ece962.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.349ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z\neq 0}" loading="lazy"></span> mit komplexen Exponenten <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \omega }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>ω<!-- ω --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \omega }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/48eff443f9de7a985bb94ca3bde20813ea737be8.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.446ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \omega }" loading="lazy"></span>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z^{\omega }:=\mathrm {e} ^{\omega \cdot \mathrm {Log} (z)}.}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>ω<!-- ω --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>:=</mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>ω<!-- ω --></mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">L</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">g</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>.</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z^{\omega }:=\mathrm {e} ^{\omega \cdot \mathrm {Log} (z)}.}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/16aa8ecca27701bebc7b3030737ee6c01ca68b2a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:14.201ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z^{\omega }:=\mathrm {e} ^{\omega \cdot \mathrm {Log} (z)}.}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>definiert werden. Dabei steht <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {Log} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">L</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">g</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {Log} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6444aca7cb0603299e2b9f8a10e71fb1f99eb4c1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.778ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {Log} }" loading="lazy"></span> für den Hauptzweig des <a href="Logarithmus#Komplexer_Logarithmus" title="Logarithmus">komplexen Logarithmus</a>. Diese Definition ist jedoch willkürlich, denn sie hängt von der Wahl des Zweiges des Logarithmus ab. In oberem Fall spricht man entsprechend vom <i>Hauptwert</i> von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z^{\omega }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>ω<!-- ω --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z^{\omega }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/156b7123eb30bcebce6640e845f67cd78eec1bd0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.345ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z^{\omega }}" loading="lazy"></span>. Jede Zahl aus der Menge
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left\{\mathrm {e} ^{\omega (\ln(|z|)+\mathrm {i} \,\mathrm {arg} (z))}\mathrm {e} ^{2\pi \mathrm {i} \;\!\omega k},\;k\in \mathbb {Z} \right\}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mrow>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>ω<!-- ω --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>ln</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">r</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">g</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mspace width="thickmathspace"></mspace>
<mspace width="negativethinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>ω<!-- ω --></mi>
<mi>k</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="thickmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">Z</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>}</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left\{\mathrm {e} ^{\omega (\ln(|z|)+\mathrm {i} \,\mathrm {arg} (z))}\mathrm {e} ^{2\pi \mathrm {i} \;\!\omega k},\;k\in \mathbb {Z} \right\}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/9822b6b8261395ff167475b10a7a4a42620c6e22.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:30.366ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left\{\mathrm {e} ^{\omega (\ln(|z|)+\mathrm {i} \,\mathrm {arg} (z))}\mathrm {e} ^{2\pi \mathrm {i} \;\!\omega k},\;k\in \mathbb {Z} \right\}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>kann allerdings als <i>eine</i> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \omega }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>ω<!-- ω --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \omega }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/48eff443f9de7a985bb94ca3bde20813ea737be8.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.446ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \omega }" loading="lazy"></span>-te Potenz von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span> aufgefasst werden, und die Wahl des Logarithmus wird bei der entsprechenden Definition der Größe <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z^{\omega }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>ω<!-- ω --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z^{\omega }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/156b7123eb30bcebce6640e845f67cd78eec1bd0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.345ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z^{\omega }}" loading="lazy"></span> mit genannt.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Im Fall <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \omega \in \mathbb {Z} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>ω<!-- ω --></mi>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">Z</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \omega \in \mathbb {Z} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3942bdb62de2e84471ef359237db94c041c55d74.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.837ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \omega \in \mathbb {Z} }" loading="lazy"></span> stimmen jedoch alle möglichen Ergebnisse mit dem Hauptwert überein, und die Funktion <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z\mapsto z^{\omega }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">↦<!-- ↦ --></mo>
<msup>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>ω<!-- ω --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z\mapsto z^{\omega }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1e78c6e37d8de1fb02ada5694d15ccf0cc82216b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.047ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z\mapsto z^{\omega }}" loading="lazy"></span> wird eindeutig, d. h. unabhängig von der getroffenen Logarithmuswahl.
</p><p>Ein Beispiel dieser allgemeinen Regel ist das Potenzieren imaginärer Zahlen mit komplexen Exponenten. So ist der Hauptwert von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{a+b\mathrm {i} }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{a+b\mathrm {i} }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/06fbbcd9a3a249dcc8b34bec1f97f9e7ee3f3609.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:4.19ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{a+b\mathrm {i} }}" loading="lazy"></span> wegen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {Log} (\mathrm {i} )={\tfrac {\pi }{2}}\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">L</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">g</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {Log} (\mathrm {i} )={\tfrac {\pi }{2}}\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/9d06de54852e8b2a884e62ec316b44ba723a9a98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:11.757ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {Log} (\mathrm {i} )={\tfrac {\pi }{2}}\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> durch
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{a+b\mathrm {i} }=\mathrm {e} ^{(a+b\mathrm {i} )\mathrm {Log} (\mathrm {i} )}=\mathrm {e} ^{-{\frac {b\pi }{2}}+{\frac {\pi a}{2}}\mathrm {i} }.}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">L</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">g</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>b</mi>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</mrow>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mi>a</mi>
</mrow>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>.</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{a+b\mathrm {i} }=\mathrm {e} ^{(a+b\mathrm {i} )\mathrm {Log} (\mathrm {i} )}=\mathrm {e} ^{-{\frac {b\pi }{2}}+{\frac {\pi a}{2}}\mathrm {i} }.}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3244aa90db5932afa572d3e9c688f819c4d1c2e6.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:30.056ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{a+b\mathrm {i} }=\mathrm {e} ^{(a+b\mathrm {i} )\mathrm {Log} (\mathrm {i} )}=\mathrm {e} ^{-{\frac {b\pi }{2}}+{\frac {\pi a}{2}}\mathrm {i} }.}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>gegeben. Zum Beispiel gilt dann <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{\mathrm {i} }=\mathrm {e} ^{-{\frac {\pi }{2}}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{\mathrm {i} }=\mathrm {e} ^{-{\frac {\pi }{2}}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f2c641f35c3459bcd35774467e16741b9d03c1c3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:8.579ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{\mathrm {i} }=\mathrm {e} ^{-{\frac {\pi }{2}}}}" loading="lazy"></span>. Allgemein sind alle möglichen Werte des Terms <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{\mathrm {i} }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{\mathrm {i} }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a785d0cc862dbb2c39ed14253395f79b1a3ca5ed.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.336ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{\mathrm {i} }}" loading="lazy"></span> durch die Elemente der Menge <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \{\mathrm {e} ^{-{\tfrac {4k+1}{2}}\pi },k\in \mathbb {Z} \}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mn>4</mn>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">Z</mi>
</mrow>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \{\mathrm {e} ^{-{\tfrac {4k+1}{2}}\pi },k\in \mathbb {Z} \}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6cedee9785814ac837bffcd7cb2acc89cf0860af.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:17.061ex; height:4.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \{\mathrm {e} ^{-{\tfrac {4k+1}{2}}\pi },k\in \mathbb {Z} \}}" loading="lazy"></span> gegeben.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Beim Rechnen mit beliebigen komplexen Potenzen ist, wegen der vielen verschiedenen Zweige des Logarithmus, große Vorsicht geboten. So ist etwa das aus den reellen Zahlen bekannte Potenzgesetz
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (x_{1}x_{2})^{b}=x_{1}^{b}x_{2}^{b},\qquad (x_{1},x_{2}>0,b\in \mathbb {R} )}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<msub>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>b</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<msubsup>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>b</mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<msubsup>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>b</mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="2em"></mspace>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>,</mo>
<msub>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>></mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (x_{1}x_{2})^{b}=x_{1}^{b}x_{2}^{b},\qquad (x_{1},x_{2}>0,b\in \mathbb {R} )}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/fd7172ef75d88c34678362945861f3311c96c940.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:39.482ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (x_{1}x_{2})^{b}=x_{1}^{b}x_{2}^{b},\qquad (x_{1},x_{2}>0,b\in \mathbb {R} )}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>im komplexen <i>im Allgemeinen nicht mehr gültig</i>. Zum Beispiel gilt bei Benutzung des Hauptzweigs
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle -1=\mathrm {i} \cdot \mathrm {i} =(-1)^{\frac {1}{2}}\cdot (-1)^{\frac {1}{2}}\not =((-1)\cdot (-1))^{\frac {1}{2}}=1^{\frac {1}{2}}=1.}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>≠</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1.</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle -1=\mathrm {i} \cdot \mathrm {i} =(-1)^{\frac {1}{2}}\cdot (-1)^{\frac {1}{2}}\not =((-1)\cdot (-1))^{\frac {1}{2}}=1^{\frac {1}{2}}=1.}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/699391b3347b2e471efa1b51c4837bb7b3fbcad8.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:55.637ex; height:4.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle -1=\mathrm {i} \cdot \mathrm {i} =(-1)^{\frac {1}{2}}\cdot (-1)^{\frac {1}{2}}\not =((-1)\cdot (-1))^{\frac {1}{2}}=1^{\frac {1}{2}}=1.}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Untergruppen"><span id="Unimodular"></span>Untergruppen</h2></div>
<p>Genau die Zahlen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} \varphi }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} \varphi }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/01a9db1b709cde51eda36fefe929683fd4d8a7b7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.797ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{\mathrm {i} \varphi }}" loading="lazy"></span> bilden den <a href="Einheitskreis" title="Einheitskreis">Einheitskreis</a> der komplexen Zahlen mit dem Betrag <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/92d98b82a3778f043108d4e20960a9193df57cbf.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.162ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1}" loading="lazy"></span>, diese Zahlen werden auch <b>unimodular</b> genannt und bilden die <a href="Kreisgruppe" title="Kreisgruppe">Kreisgruppe</a>.
</p><p>Dass die Multiplikation von komplexen Zahlen (außer der Null) <a href="Drehstreckung" title="Drehstreckung">Drehstreckungen</a> entspricht, lässt sich mathematisch wie folgt ausdrücken: Die multiplikative <a href="Gruppe_(Mathematik)" title="Gruppe (Mathematik)">Gruppe</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{\times }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>×<!-- × --></mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{\times }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/fdb696059a558aeee27138277c41d30fd9bd7a91.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.189ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{\times }}" loading="lazy"></span> der komplexen Zahlen ohne die Null lässt sich als <a href="Direktes_Produkt" title="Direktes Produkt">direktes Produkt</a> der Gruppe der <a href="Drehung" title="Drehung">Drehungen</a> – isomorph zur Kreisgruppe – und der Streckungen um einen Faktor ungleich Null – isomorph zur multiplikativen Gruppe <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{+}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>+</mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{+}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/97dc5e850d079061c24290bac160c8d3b62ee139.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.189ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{+}}" loading="lazy"></span> – auffassen. Erstere Gruppe lässt sich durch das Argument <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \varphi }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \varphi }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/33ee699558d09cf9d653f6351f9fda0b2f4aaa3e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.52ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \varphi }" loading="lazy"></span> <a href="Einparameter-Untergruppe" title="Einparameter-Untergruppe">parametrisieren</a>, zweitere entspricht gerade den Beträgen.
</p><p>Alle Elemente einer endlichen Untergruppe der multiplikativen <a href="Einheitengruppe" title="Einheitengruppe">Einheitengruppe</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{\times }=\mathbb {C} \setminus \{0\}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>×<!-- × --></mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
<mo class="MJX-variant">∖<!-- ∖ --></mo>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{\times }=\mathbb {C} \setminus \{0\}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/5670ed77882ab42a03caef467a023c66ee8c41f7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:13.647ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{\times }=\mathbb {C} \setminus \{0\}}" loading="lazy"></span> sind <a href="Einheitswurzel" title="Einheitswurzel">Einheitswurzeln</a>. Unter allen <a href="Ordnung_eines_Gruppenelementes" title="Ordnung eines Gruppenelementes">Ordnungen</a> von Elementen einer gegebenen endlichen Untergruppe gibt es eine maximale, sie heiße <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n\in \mathbb {N} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">N</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n\in \mathbb {N} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d059936e77a2d707e9ee0a1d9575a1d693ce5d0b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.913ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n\in \mathbb {N} }" loading="lazy"></span>. Da <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f9add4085095b9b6d28d045fd9c92c2c09f549a7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span> kommutativ ist, erzeugt ein Element mit dieser maximalen Ordnung dann auch die Gruppe, so dass die Gruppe <a href="Zyklische_Gruppe" title="Zyklische Gruppe">zyklisch</a> ist und genau aus den Elementen
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{2\pi \mathrm {i} {\frac {k}{n}}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mi>k</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{2\pi \mathrm {i} {\frac {k}{n}}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/68c97e6103a01663c8134233c4dfb4f9bb673815.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.123ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{2\pi \mathrm {i} {\frac {k}{n}}}}" loading="lazy"></span> mit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k\in \{0,1,\dotsc ,n-1\}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mo>…<!-- … --></mo>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k\in \{0,1,\dotsc ,n-1\}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d5fc5d3b0c08854658dca285e52909da622432ed.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:20.311ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k\in \{0,1,\dotsc ,n-1\}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>besteht. Alle diese Elemente liegen auf dem Einheitskreis.
</p><p>Die Vereinigung aller endlichen Untergruppen ist eine Gruppe, die zur <a href="Torsion_(Algebra)" title="Torsion (Algebra)">Torsionsgruppe</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} /\mathbb {Z} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">Q</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>/</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">Z</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} /\mathbb {Z} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7bdd2bd579c01d4e642792597ed388974b470e0c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.521ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} /\mathbb {Z} }" loading="lazy"></span> <a href="Isomorphismus" title="Isomorphismus">isomorph</a> ist. Sie liegt <a href="Dichte_Teilmenge" title="Dichte Teilmenge">dicht</a> in ihrer <a href="Vollst%C3%A4ndiger_Raum" title="Vollständiger Raum">Vervollständigung</a>, der schon erwähnten Kreisgruppe, die auch als <a href="Sph%C3%A4re_(Mathematik)" title="Sphäre (Mathematik)">1-Sphäre</a> aufgefasst werden kann und zu <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} /\mathbb {Z} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>/</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">Z</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} /\mathbb {Z} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f62160dc28538c41d74ffcfbca4a7b3c68693880.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.391ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} /\mathbb {Z} }" loading="lazy"></span> isomorph ist.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Konstruktion">Konstruktion</h2></div>
<p>In diesem Abschnitt wird nachgewiesen, dass tatsächlich ein <a href="K%C3%B6rper_(Algebra)" title="Körper (Algebra)">Körper</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f9add4085095b9b6d28d045fd9c92c2c09f549a7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span> der komplexen Zahlen existiert, der den in der obigen Definition geforderten Eigenschaften genügt. Es sind dabei verschiedene Konstruktionen möglich, die jedoch bis auf Isomorphie zum selben Körper führen.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paare_reeller_Zahlen">Paare reeller Zahlen</h3></div>
<p>Die Konstruktion nimmt zunächst keinerlei Bezug auf die imaginäre Einheit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/18f0f09f6fc40e634d34aed6e205ac0f7a40e062.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.647ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span>: Im 2-dimensionalen reellen <a href="Vektorraum" title="Vektorraum">Vektorraum</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e150115ab9f63023215109595b76686a1ff890fd.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.732ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span> der geordneten reellen Zahlenpaare <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z=(a,b)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z=(a,b)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7b244679a222179f2892475d0544be0b8064a0e1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.257ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z=(a,b)}" loading="lazy"></span> wird neben der <a href="Addition" title="Addition">Addition</a>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (a,b)+(c,d):=(a+c,\ b+d)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>c</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>d</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>:=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>c</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>d</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (a,b)+(c,d):=(a+c,\ b+d)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3a555c64822db98bf3510a3a253f1938afe4f37a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:30.277ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (a,b)+(c,d):=(a+c,\ b+d)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>(das ist die gewöhnliche Vektoraddition) eine <a href="Multiplikation" title="Multiplikation">Multiplikation</a> durch
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (a,b)\cdot (c,d):=(a\cdot c-b\cdot d,\ a\cdot d+b\cdot c)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>c</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>d</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>:=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mi>c</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mi>d</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mi>d</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mi>c</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (a,b)\cdot (c,d):=(a\cdot c-b\cdot d,\ a\cdot d+b\cdot c)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d7c5d73b86b472af141911461af34f91d2a869cb.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:40.282ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (a,b)\cdot (c,d):=(a\cdot c-b\cdot d,\ a\cdot d+b\cdot c)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>definiert.
</p><p>Nach dieser Festlegung schreibt man <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} =\mathbb {R} ^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} =\mathbb {R} ^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/5d2393db63ad1c4e4d01a7f98b75c91968775f11.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.509ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} =\mathbb {R} ^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span>, und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (\mathbb {C} ,+,\cdot )}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>,</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mo>,</mo>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (\mathbb {C} ,+,\cdot )}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/76c13ca9956454acbfcbe7e264150781d824b0ce.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:8.01ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (\mathbb {C} ,+,\cdot )}" loading="lazy"></span> wird zu einem Körper, dem <b>Körper der komplexen Zahlen.</b> Die imaginäre Einheit wird dann durch <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} :=(0,1)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>:=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} :=(0,1)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/521ce14fab4f529f19228c0cfd1d8a2d03f9c712.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.56ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} :=(0,1)}" loading="lazy"></span> definiert.
</p><p>Da <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \{(1,0),(0,1)\}=\{1,\mathrm {i} \}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>,</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \{(1,0),(0,1)\}=\{1,\mathrm {i} \}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b53e44bb2decc9fd511641af10331e7f33b4e16e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:21.962ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \{(1,0),(0,1)\}=\{1,\mathrm {i} \}}" loading="lazy"></span> eine Basis des <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e150115ab9f63023215109595b76686a1ff890fd.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.732ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span> bilden, lässt sich <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span> damit als Linearkombination
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z=1\cdot (a,0)+\mathrm {i} \cdot (b,0)=a+\mathrm {i} b}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>b</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z=1\cdot (a,0)+\mathrm {i} \cdot (b,0)=a+\mathrm {i} b}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/eb0dd9ee55216b5cd07cf123225c8010bcb4fa22.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:31.246ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z=1\cdot (a,0)+\mathrm {i} \cdot (b,0)=a+\mathrm {i} b}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>darstellen.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Erste_Eigenschaften">Erste Eigenschaften</h4></div>
<ul><li>Die Abbildung <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} \to \mathbb {C} ,\,a\mapsto (a,0)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">↦<!-- ↦ --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} \to \mathbb {C} ,\,a\mapsto (a,0)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/862fa228a810dc27ec3b8c659fc03e7b99e7a259.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:18.471ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} \to \mathbb {C} ,\,a\mapsto (a,0)}" loading="lazy"></span> ist eine <a href="Einbettung_(Mathematik)" title="Einbettung (Mathematik)">Körpereinbettung</a> von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/786849c765da7a84dbc3cce43e96aad58a5868dc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }" loading="lazy"></span> in <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f9add4085095b9b6d28d045fd9c92c2c09f549a7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span>, aufgrund der wir die reelle Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>a</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ffd2487510aa438433a2579450ab2b3d557e5edc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.23ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a}" loading="lazy"></span> mit der komplexen Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (a,0)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (a,0)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/cb7e272c21fb886ae2ab806119c8cd35c2a52754.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.236ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (a,0)}" loading="lazy"></span> identifizieren.</li></ul>
<p>Bezüglich der Addition ist:
</p>
<ul><li>die Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 0=(0,0)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 0=(0,0)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/685c946dd99baf55daf8b996889c41fae9fe1cc0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.429ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 0=(0,0)}" loading="lazy"></span> das neutrale Element (das Nullelement) in <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f9add4085095b9b6d28d045fd9c92c2c09f549a7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span> und</li>
<li>die Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle -z=(-a,-b)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle -z=(-a,-b)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c5811a913a6b97673baae7cbaa325aaf005f3d99.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:14.682ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle -z=(-a,-b)}" loading="lazy"></span> das inverse Element in <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f9add4085095b9b6d28d045fd9c92c2c09f549a7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span>.</li></ul>
<p>Bezüglich der Multiplikation ist:
</p>
<ul><li>die Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1=(1,0)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1=(1,0)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3dd9e46dd747923d3ed7d783863f9ea40f7cc564.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.429ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1=(1,0)}" loading="lazy"></span> das neutrale Element (das Einselement) von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f9add4085095b9b6d28d045fd9c92c2c09f549a7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span> und</li>
<li>das Inverse (<a href="Kehrwert" title="Kehrwert">Reziproke</a>) zu <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z=(a,b)\neq (0,0)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>≠<!-- ≠ --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z=(a,b)\neq (0,0)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ce23ec583617758c9f30be6d47b6fd4008f297b1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:17.524ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z=(a,b)\neq (0,0)}" loading="lazy"></span> ist <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z^{-1}=\left({\frac {a}{a^{2}+b^{2}}},\,{\frac {-b}{a^{2}+b^{2}}}\right)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow>
<msup>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<msup>
<mi>b</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>b</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<msup>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<msup>
<mi>b</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z^{-1}=\left({\frac {a}{a^{2}+b^{2}}},\,{\frac {-b}{a^{2}+b^{2}}}\right)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/9e091ede2fb2c89ac03eb98daaf788420ce2c4cf.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:27.389ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z^{-1}=\left({\frac {a}{a^{2}+b^{2}}},\,{\frac {-b}{a^{2}+b^{2}}}\right)}" loading="lazy"></span>.</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bezug_zur_Darstellung_in_der_Form_a_+_bi"><span id="Bezug_zur_Darstellung_in_der_Form_a_.2B_bi"></span>Bezug zur Darstellung in der Form <i>a</i> + <i>b</i>i</h4></div>
<p>Durch <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} :=(0,1)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>:=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} :=(0,1)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/521ce14fab4f529f19228c0cfd1d8a2d03f9c712.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.56ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} :=(0,1)}" loading="lazy"></span> wird die imaginäre Einheit festgelegt; für diese gilt <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{2}=(0,1)^{2}=(-1,0)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{2}=(0,1)^{2}=(-1,0)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/5635e7ddfdb734414ba6ef064e000ad8631669fc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:21.097ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{2}=(0,1)^{2}=(-1,0)}" loading="lazy"></span>, was nach obiger Einbettung gleich <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle -1\in \mathbb {R} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle -1\in \mathbb {R} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/42921623c32512eda04bb7f054f6695d2921c375.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:7.489ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle -1\in \mathbb {R} }" loading="lazy"></span> entspricht.
</p><p>Jede komplexe Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z=(a,b)\in \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z=(a,b)\in \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/58136999ebe5ee76573a0b17c56486f2411649a5.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:13.776ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z=(a,b)\in \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span> besitzt die <i>eindeutige</i> Darstellung der Form
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z=(a,b)=(a,0)+(0,b)=a\cdot (1,0)+b\cdot (0,1)=a+b\,\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z=(a,b)=(a,0)+(0,b)=a\cdot (1,0)+b\cdot (0,1)=a+b\,\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4730e372e87eb9b33acc27bd154f3110a89456df.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:56.496ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z=(a,b)=(a,0)+(0,b)=a\cdot (1,0)+b\cdot (0,1)=a+b\,\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>mit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a,b\in \mathbb {R} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a,b\in \mathbb {R} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/fe0bf0e2324bac843fab916c46d1b3349017a616.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.78ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a,b\in \mathbb {R} }" loading="lazy"></span>; dies ist die übliche Schreibweise für die komplexen Zahlen.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polynome:_Adjunktion">Polynome: Adjunktion</h3></div>
<p>Eine weitere Konstruktion der komplexen Zahlen ist der <a href="Faktorring" title="Faktorring">Faktorring</a>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} [X]/(X^{2}+1)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">[</mo>
<mi>X</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">]</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>/</mo>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msup>
<mi>X</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} [X]/(X^{2}+1)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4a9561fb97d235fa5d9d975ea50b9ac958058410.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:14.977ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} [X]/(X^{2}+1)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>des <a href="Polynomring" title="Polynomring">Polynomringes</a> in einer Unbestimmten über den reellen Zahlen. Hintergrund ist der <a href="Surjektive_Abbildung" class="mw-redirect" title="Surjektive Abbildung">surjektive</a> <a href="Einsetzungshomomorphismus" title="Einsetzungshomomorphismus">Einsetzungshomomorphismus</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} [X]\to \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">[</mo>
<mi>X</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">]</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} [X]\to \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/029b404ca14e700bc8fd42f11a126173d5c1a6cb.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.244ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} [X]\to \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span> mit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X\mapsto \mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>X</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">↦<!-- ↦ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X\mapsto \mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6d322a15220c6c1543e77c8770095d77f35188d9.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.241ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X\mapsto \mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span>, der als <a href="Kern_(Algebra)" title="Kern (Algebra)">Kern</a> das <a href="Maximales_Ideal" title="Maximales Ideal">maximale Ideal</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (X^{2}+1)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msup>
<mi>X</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (X^{2}+1)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a02bfc86e7ed8b2d5c6698946f94ccd5ed033e57.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:8.863ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (X^{2}+1)}" loading="lazy"></span> hat. Mit dem <a href="Homomorphiesatz" title="Homomorphiesatz">Homomorphiesatz</a> ergibt sich dann die behauptete Isomorphie.
</p><p>Dieses Konstruktionsprinzip ist auch in anderem Kontext anwendbar, man spricht von <a href="Adjunktion_(Algebra)" title="Adjunktion (Algebra)">Adjunktion</a>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Matrizen">Matrizen</h3></div>
<p>Die Menge der <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2\times 2}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>2</mn>
<mo>×<!-- × --></mo>
<mn>2</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2\times 2}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f8a0e3400ffb97d67c00267ed50cddfe824cbe80.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.165ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2\times 2}" loading="lazy"></span>-<a href="Matrix_(Mathematik)" title="Matrix (Mathematik)">Matrizen</a> der Form
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Z={\begin{pmatrix}a&-b\\b&a\end{pmatrix}}=a{\begin{pmatrix}1&0\\0&1\end{pmatrix}}+b{\begin{pmatrix}0&-1\\1&0\end{pmatrix}}=a\cdot E+b\cdot I}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>Z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mi>a</mi>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>b</mi>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mi>b</mi>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mi>a</mi>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mn>1</mn>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mn>0</mn>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mn>0</mn>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mn>1</mn>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mn>0</mn>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mn>1</mn>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mn>0</mn>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mi>E</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mi>I</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Z={\begin{pmatrix}a&-b\\b&a\end{pmatrix}}=a{\begin{pmatrix}1&0\\0&1\end{pmatrix}}+b{\begin{pmatrix}0&-1\\1&0\end{pmatrix}}=a\cdot E+b\cdot I}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/5ea89007c0bff6ae4d5ea0418dd8d480748b3d4e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:57.396ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Z={\begin{pmatrix}a&-b\\b&a\end{pmatrix}}=a{\begin{pmatrix}1&0\\0&1\end{pmatrix}}+b{\begin{pmatrix}0&-1\\1&0\end{pmatrix}}=a\cdot E+b\cdot I}" loading="lazy"></span> mit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a,b\in \mathbb {R} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a,b\in \mathbb {R} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/fe0bf0e2324bac843fab916c46d1b3349017a616.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.78ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a,b\in \mathbb {R} }" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>bildet ebenfalls ein Modell der komplexen Zahlen. Dabei werden die reelle Einheit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/92d98b82a3778f043108d4e20960a9193df57cbf.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.162ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1}" loading="lazy"></span> bzw. die imaginäre Einheit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/18f0f09f6fc40e634d34aed6e205ac0f7a40e062.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.647ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> durch die <a href="Einheitsmatrix" title="Einheitsmatrix">Einheitsmatrix</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>E</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4232c9de2ee3eec0a9c0a19b15ab92daa6223f9b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.776ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E}" loading="lazy"></span> bzw. die Matrix <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>I</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/535ea7fc4134a31cbe2251d9d3511374bc41be9f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.172ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I}" loading="lazy"></span> dargestellt. Daher gilt:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \operatorname {Re} (Z)=a={\frac {1}{2}}\operatorname {tr} (Z)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>Re</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mi>tr</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \operatorname {Re} (Z)=a={\frac {1}{2}}\operatorname {tr} (Z)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e4f880daa00cc1f8fcf69075d633c795118b80f8.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:21.351ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \operatorname {Re} (Z)=a={\frac {1}{2}}\operatorname {tr} (Z)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd>
<dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \operatorname {Im} (Z)=b}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>Im</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \operatorname {Im} (Z)=b}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1c67544f5d2e5df02d018cf037a98e807fed6e78.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.361ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \operatorname {Im} (Z)=b}" loading="lazy"></span></dd>
<dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I^{2}=-E}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>I</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>E</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I^{2}=-E}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/656539a03b2d407fab9b529a303b7b5a0c1284c4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:8.953ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I^{2}=-E}" loading="lazy"></span></dd>
<dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \operatorname {abs} (Z)={\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}={\sqrt {\det Z}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>abs</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<msup>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<msup>
<mi>b</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">det</mo>
<mi>Z</mi>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \operatorname {abs} (Z)={\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}={\sqrt {\det Z}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/33305a83c21ee15efb3c50f6958989dbe6331409.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:29.791ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \operatorname {abs} (Z)={\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}={\sqrt {\det Z}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd>
<dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\overline {Z}}={\begin{pmatrix}a&b\\-b&a\end{pmatrix}}=Z^{\top }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mo accent="false">¯<!-- ¯ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mi>a</mi>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mi>b</mi>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>b</mi>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mi>a</mi>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">⊤<!-- ⊤ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\overline {Z}}={\begin{pmatrix}a&b\\-b&a\end{pmatrix}}=Z^{\top }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ec4b4bbb594bd8c6316015877a53d8960e3332ea.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:21.803ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\overline {Z}}={\begin{pmatrix}a&b\\-b&a\end{pmatrix}}=Z^{\top }}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Diese Menge ist ein <a href="Untervektorraum" title="Untervektorraum">Unterraum</a> des <a href="Vektorraum" title="Vektorraum">Vektorraums</a> der reellen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2\times 2}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>2</mn>
<mo>×<!-- × --></mo>
<mn>2</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2\times 2}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f8a0e3400ffb97d67c00267ed50cddfe824cbe80.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.165ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2\times 2}" loading="lazy"></span>-Matrizen.
Diese Darstellung spielt eine entscheidende Rolle bei <a href="Holomorphe_Funktion" title="Holomorphe Funktion">Holomorphen Funktion</a> im Zusammenhang der <a href="Cauchy-Riemannsche_partielle_Differentialgleichungen" title="Cauchy-Riemannsche partielle Differentialgleichungen">Cauchy-Riemannschen partiellen Differentialgleichungen</a>.
</p><p>Reelle Zahlen entsprechen <a href="Diagonalmatrix" title="Diagonalmatrix">Diagonalmatrizen</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}a&0\\0&a\end{pmatrix}}.}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mi>a</mi>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mn>0</mn>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mn>0</mn>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mi>a</mi>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>.</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}a&0\\0&a\end{pmatrix}}.}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ceed9650da05c4394acb4740ddb66064a4e8cd59.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:9.602ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}a&0\\0&a\end{pmatrix}}.}" loading="lazy"></span>
</p><p>Die zu den Matrizen gehörenden linearen Abbildungen sind, sofern <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>a</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ffd2487510aa438433a2579450ab2b3d557e5edc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.23ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle b}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>b</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle b}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f11423fbb2e967f986e36804a8ae4271734917c3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.998ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle b}" loading="lazy"></span> nicht beide null sind, <a href="Drehstreckung" title="Drehstreckung">Drehstreckungen</a> im Raum <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e150115ab9f63023215109595b76686a1ff890fd.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.732ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span>. Es handelt sich um genau dieselben Drehstreckungen wie bei der Interpretation der Multiplikation mit einer komplexen Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a+b\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a+b\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6d51de259dbe8977449f656684454c12e2e48964.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:5.715ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a+b\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> in der <a href="Gau%C3%9Fsche_Zahlenebene" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaußsche Zahlenebene">gaußschen Zahlenebene</a>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geschichte">Geschichte</h2></div>
<p>Der Begriff „komplexe Zahlen“ wurde von <a href="Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F" title="Carl Friedrich Gauß">Carl Friedrich Gauß</a> (<i>Theoria residuorum biquadraticorum,</i> 1831) eingeführt, der Ursprung der Theorie der komplexen Zahlen geht auf die Mathematiker <a href="Gerolamo_Cardano" title="Gerolamo Cardano">Gerolamo Cardano</a> (<i>Ars magna,</i> Nürnberg 1545) und <a href="Rafael_Bombelli" title="Rafael Bombelli">Rafael Bombelli</a> (<i>L’Algebra,</i> Bologna 1572; wahrscheinlich zwischen 1557 und 1560 geschrieben) zurück.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Die Unmöglichkeit eines naiven <a href="Radizieren" class="mw-redirect" title="Radizieren">Radizierens</a> der Art <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x^{2}=-1\Rightarrow x=\pm {\sqrt {-1}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">⇒<!-- ⇒ --></mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>±<!-- ± --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x^{2}=-1\Rightarrow x=\pm {\sqrt {-1}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/46ecd07963aa039284a827035133fd1a205f1374.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:23.21ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x^{2}=-1\Rightarrow x=\pm {\sqrt {-1}}}" loading="lazy"></span> ist bei der Behandlung quadratischer Gleichungen schon sehr früh bemerkt und hervorgehoben worden, z. B. schon in der um 820 n. Chr. verfassten Algebra des <a href="Al-Chwarizmi" title="Al-Chwarizmi">Muhammed ibn Mûsâ Alchwârizmî</a>. Aber bei dem nächstliegenden und scheinbar unanfechtbaren Schluss, dass diese Art von Gleichung nicht lösbar sei, blieb die mathematische Forschung nicht stehen.
</p><p>In gewissem Sinne ist bereits <a href="Gerolamo_Cardano" title="Gerolamo Cardano">Gerolamo Cardano</a> (1501–1576) in seinem 1545 erschienenen Buch <i>Artis magnae sive de regulis algebraicis liber unus</i> darüber hinausgegangen. Er behandelt dort die Aufgabe, zwei Zahlen zu finden, deren Produkt 40 und deren Summe 10 ist. Er hebt hervor, dass die dafür anzusetzende Gleichung
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x(10-x)=40}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>10</mn>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>40</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x(10-x)=40}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/685776bd813c83a8ac39961bc8d4bf2ea9d208a0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:15.057ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x(10-x)=40}" loading="lazy"></span></dd>
<dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x^{2}-10x+40=0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>10</mn>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>40</mn>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x^{2}-10x+40=0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/dfdd81123a3fb67baca2176073a3b876b241ce33.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:18.305ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x^{2}-10x+40=0}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>keine Lösung hat, fügt aber einige Bemerkungen hinzu, indem er in die Lösung
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x_{1,2}=-{\frac {p}{2}}\pm {\sqrt {{\frac {p^{2}}{4}}-q}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mi>p</mi>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>±<!-- ± --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<msup>
<mi>p</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mn>4</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>q</mi>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x_{1,2}=-{\frac {p}{2}}\pm {\sqrt {{\frac {p^{2}}{4}}-q}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/aa3e2bf2d17cd25f72637e0f1289aa569d803e5b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:22.709ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x_{1,2}=-{\frac {p}{2}}\pm {\sqrt {{\frac {p^{2}}{4}}-q}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>der allgemeinen normierten <a href="Quadratische_Gleichung" title="Quadratische Gleichung">quadratischen Gleichung</a>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x^{2}+px+q=0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>p</mi>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>q</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x^{2}+px+q=0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b1447b7f80b86966dc9f431ba415b2de2608e50e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:15.894ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x^{2}+px+q=0}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>für <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>p</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle q}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>q</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle q}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/06809d64fa7c817ffc7e323f85997f783dbdf71d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.07ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle q}" loading="lazy"></span> die Werte −10 bzw. 40 einsetzt. Wenn es also möglich wäre, dem sich ergebenden Ausdruck
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\sqrt {25-40}}={\sqrt {-15}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<mn>25</mn>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>40</mn>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>15</mn>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\sqrt {25-40}}={\sqrt {-15}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6fe5ed8eead1f4ce52449f9bb65d46f13455cd82.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:18.593ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\sqrt {25-40}}={\sqrt {-15}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>einen Sinn zu geben, und zwar so, dass man mit diesem Zeichen nach denselben Regeln rechnen dürfte wie mit einer reellen Zahl, so würden die Ausdrücke
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 5+{\sqrt {-15}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>5</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>15</mn>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 5+{\sqrt {-15}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/47542fd65df12534ec3ebabcad3e9a04fd17bb8f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.072ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 5+{\sqrt {-15}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd>
<dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 5-{\sqrt {-15}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>5</mn>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>15</mn>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 5-{\sqrt {-15}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c1ba528b9eefa844a719e335df01be4c1c43669a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.072ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 5-{\sqrt {-15}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>in der Tat je eine Lösung darstellen.
</p><p>Für die Quadratwurzel aus negativen Zahlen und allgemeiner für alle aus einer beliebigen reellen Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \alpha }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>α<!-- α --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \alpha }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b79333175c8b3f0840bfb4ec41b8072c83ea88d3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.488ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \alpha }" loading="lazy"></span> und einer positiven reellen Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \beta }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>β<!-- β --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \beta }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7ed48a5e36207156fb792fa79d29925d2f7901e8.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.332ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \beta }" loading="lazy"></span> zusammengesetzten Zahlen
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \alpha +\!{\sqrt {-\beta \,}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>α<!-- α --></mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mspace width="negativethinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>β<!-- β --></mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \alpha +\!{\sqrt {-\beta \,}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
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<p>hat sich seit der Mitte des 17. Jahrhunderts die Bezeichnung <a href="Imagin%C3%A4re_Zahl" title="Imaginäre Zahl">imaginäre Zahl</a> eingebürgert, die ursprünglich von <a href="Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> stammt, der in seiner <i>La Géométrie</i> (1637) damit die Schwierigkeit des Verständnisses komplexer Zahlen als nichtreeller Lösungen algebraischer Gleichungen ausdrückte. <a href="John_Wallis" title="John Wallis">John Wallis</a> erzielte im 17. Jahrhundert erste Fortschritte in Hinblick auf eine geometrische Interpretation komplexer Zahlen. <a href="Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a> nannte sie 1702 eine „feine und wunderbare Zuflucht des menschlichen Geistes, beinahe ein Zwitterwesen zwischen Sein und Nichtsein“.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die Einführung der imaginären Einheit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
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<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/18f0f09f6fc40e634d34aed6e205ac0f7a40e062.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.647ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> als neue Zahl wird <a href="Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Leonhard Euler</a> zugeschrieben. Er erzielte durch Rechnen mit imaginären Zahlen wertvolle neue Erkenntnisse, zum Beispiel veröffentlichte er die <a href="Eulersche_Formel" title="Eulersche Formel">Eulersche Formel</a> 1748 in seiner Einführung in die Analysis und veröffentlichte erstmals explizit die <a href="Moivrescher_Satz" title="Moivrescher Satz">Formel</a> von <a href="Abraham_de_Moivre" title="Abraham de Moivre">Abraham de Moivre</a> (Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts, dieser wiederum hatte sie von <a href="Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), aber auch Euler hatte noch große Schwierigkeiten beim Verständnis und der Einordnung komplexer Zahlen, obwohl er routinemäßig damit rechnete.
</p><p>Die geometrische Interpretation wurde zuerst vom Landvermesser <a href="Caspar_Wessel" title="Caspar Wessel">Caspar Wessel</a> (1799 veröffentlicht in den Abhandlungen der <a href="K%C3%B6niglich_D%C3%A4nische_Akademie_der_Wissenschaften" title="Königlich Dänische Akademie der Wissenschaften">Königlich Dänischen Akademie der Wissenschaften</a>, aber erst rund hundert Jahre später weiteren Kreisen bekannt),<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> von <a href="Jean-Robert_Argand" title="Jean-Robert Argand">Jean-Robert Argand</a> (in einem obskuren Privatdruck 1806, den aber Legendre zur Kenntnis kam und der 1813 breiteren Kreisen bekannt wurde) und Gauß (unveröffentlicht) entdeckt. Gauß erwähnt die Darstellung explizit in einem Brief an <a href="Friedrich_Bessel" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich Bessel">Friedrich Bessel</a> vom 18. Dezember 1811.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nach Argand wird die geometrische Darstellung in der Zahlenebene manchmal auch <b>Arganddiagramm</b> genannt.
</p><p>Als Begründer der <a href="Funktionentheorie" title="Funktionentheorie">komplexen Analysis</a> gilt <a href="Augustin-Louis_Cauchy" title="Augustin-Louis Cauchy">Augustin-Louis Cauchy</a> in einer 1814 bei der französischen Akademie eingereichten Arbeit über Integration im Komplexen, die aber erst 1825 veröffentlicht wurde. 1821 definierte er in seinem Lehrbuch <i>Cours d’analyse</i> eine Funktion einer komplexen Variablen in die komplexe Zahlenebene und bewies viele grundlegende Sätze der Funktionentheorie.
</p><p><a href="William_Rowan_Hamilton" title="William Rowan Hamilton">William Rowan Hamilton</a> strebte aufgrund seiner Interpretation der Philosophie <a href="Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kants</a> einen „Aufbau der Algebra als Wissenschaft der reinen Zeit an“ und fand in dem Kontext 1833 eine logisch einwandfreie Begründung der komplexen Zahlen als <a href="Geordnetes_Paar" title="Geordnetes Paar">geordnetes Paar</a> reeller Zahlen. Er deutete die komplexe Zahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a+b\cdot \mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
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<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a+b\cdot \mathrm {i} }</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4fbb86c5531df27a03180711326b728aec00e30b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:7.394ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a+b\cdot \mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> als Zahlenpaar <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (a,b)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (a,b)}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d7e5710198f33b00695903460983021e75860e2c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.071ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (a,b)}" loading="lazy"></span> und definierte Addition beziehungsweise die Multiplikation durch<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}(a_{1},b_{1})+(a_{2},b_{2})&=(a_{1}+a_{2},\ b_{1}+b_{2})\\(a_{1},b_{1})\;\cdot \,(a_{2},b_{2})&=(a_{1}a_{2}-b_{1}b_{2},\ a_{1}b_{2}+a_{2}b_{1}).\end{aligned}}}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}(a_{1},b_{1})+(a_{2},b_{2})&=(a_{1}+a_{2},\ b_{1}+b_{2})\\(a_{1},b_{1})\;\cdot \,(a_{2},b_{2})&=(a_{1}a_{2}-b_{1}b_{2},\ a_{1}b_{2}+a_{2}b_{1}).\end{aligned}}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d2dbb251b80dd88f1acc7b25eb1b507e7d51d04e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:48.143ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}(a_{1},b_{1})+(a_{2},b_{2})&=(a_{1}+a_{2},\ b_{1}+b_{2})\\(a_{1},b_{1})\;\cdot \,(a_{2},b_{2})&=(a_{1}a_{2}-b_{1}b_{2},\ a_{1}b_{2}+a_{2}b_{1}).\end{aligned}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Heute wird die Berechtigung komplexer Zahlen nicht mehr in Frage gestellt: Durch die Einfachheit der Definition, durch die bereits erläuterten Bedeutung und durch Anwendungen in vielen Wissenschaftsgebieten stehen die komplexen Zahlen den reellen Zahlen in nichts nach. Der Begriff der „imaginären“ Zahlen wurde zwar beibehalten, hat aber im Laufe der Jahrhunderte seine ursprünglich pejorative Bedeutung – im Sinne von eingebildeten, unwirklichen, sinnlosen oder nutzlosen Zahlen – abgelegt. Um es mit <a href="Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F" title="Carl Friedrich Gauß">Carl Friedrich Gauß</a> zu sagen: <i>„Bei allem dem sind die imaginären Grössen, so lange ihre Grundlage immer nur in einer Fiction bestand, in der Mathematik nicht sowohl wie eingebürgert, als viel mehr nur wie geduldet betrachtet, und weit davon entfernt geblieben, mit den reellen Grössen auf gleiche Linie gestellt zu werden. Zu einer solchen Zurücksetzung ist aber jetzt kein Grund mehr […]“</i><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bedeutung">Bedeutung</h2></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Komplexe_Zahlen_in_der_Physik">Komplexe Zahlen in der Physik</h3></div>
<p>Komplexe Zahlen spielen in der Grundlagenphysik eine zentrale Rolle. In der <a href="Quantenmechanik" title="Quantenmechanik">Quantenmechanik</a> wird der Zustand eines physikalischen Systems als Element eines (projektiven) <a href="Hilbertraum" title="Hilbertraum">Hilbertraums</a> über den komplexen Zahlen aufgefasst. Komplexe Zahlen finden Verwendung bei der Definition von <a href="Differentialoperator" title="Differentialoperator">Differentialoperatoren</a> in der <a href="Schr%C3%B6dingergleichung" title="Schrödingergleichung">Schrödingergleichung</a> und der <a href="Klein-Gordon-Gleichung" title="Klein-Gordon-Gleichung">Klein-Gordon-Gleichung</a>. Für die <a href="Dirac-Gleichung" title="Dirac-Gleichung">Dirac-Gleichung</a> benötigt man eine <a href="Zahlbereichserweiterung" title="Zahlbereichserweiterung">Zahlbereichserweiterung</a> der komplexen Zahlen, die <a href="Quaternionen" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaternionen">Quaternionen</a>. Alternativ ist eine Formulierung mit <a href="Pauli-Matrizen" title="Pauli-Matrizen">Pauli-Matrizen</a> möglich, die aber die gleiche <a href="Algebra" title="Algebra">algebraische Struktur</a> wie die Quaternionen aufweisen.
</p><p>Komplexe Zahlen haben in der Physik und Technik eine wichtige Rolle als Rechenhilfe. So lässt sich insbesondere die Behandlung von Differentialgleichungen zu Schwingungsvorgängen vereinfachen, da sich damit die komplizierten Beziehungen in Zusammenhang mit Produkten von Sinus- bzw. Kosinusfunktionen durch Produkte von Exponentialfunktionen ersetzen lassen, wobei lediglich die Exponenten addiert werden müssen. So fügt man dazu beispielsweise in der <a href="Komplexe_Wechselstromrechnung" title="Komplexe Wechselstromrechnung">komplexen Wechselstromrechnung</a> geeignete Imaginärteile in die reellen Ausgangsgleichungen ein, die man bei der Auswertung der Rechenergebnisse dann wieder ignoriert. Dadurch werden in der Zwischenrechnung harmonische Schwingungen (reell) zu <a href="Eulersche_Formel" title="Eulersche Formel">Kreisbewegungen in der komplexen Ebene</a> ergänzt, die mehr Symmetrie aufweisen und deswegen einfacher zu behandeln sind.
</p><p>In der <a href="Optik" title="Optik">Optik</a> werden die brechenden und absorbierenden Effekte einer Substanz in einer komplexen, <a href="Wellenl%C3%A4nge" title="Wellenlänge">wellenlängenabhängigen</a> <a href="Permittivit%C3%A4t" title="Permittivität">Permittivität</a> (Dielektrizitätskonstante) oder dem komplexen <a href="Brechungsindex" title="Brechungsindex">Brechungsindex</a> zusammengefasst, die wiederum auf die <a href="Elektrische_Suszeptibilit%C3%A4t" title="Elektrische Suszeptibilität">elektrische Suszeptibilität</a> zurückgeführt wird.
</p><p>In der <a href="Fluiddynamik" title="Fluiddynamik">Fluiddynamik</a> werden komplexe Zahlen eingesetzt, um ebene <a href="Potentialstr%C3%B6mung" title="Potentialströmung">Potentialströmungen</a> zu erklären und zu verstehen. Jede beliebige komplexe Funktion eines komplexen Arguments stellt immer eine ebene Potentialströmung dar – der geometrische Ort entspricht dem komplexen Argument in der gaußschen Zahlenebene, das Strömungspotenzial dem Realteil der Funktion, und die Stromlinien den Isolinien des Imaginärteils der Funktion mit umgekehrtem Vorzeichen. Das Vektorfeld der Strömungsgeschwindigkeit entspricht der konjugiert komplexen ersten Ableitung der Funktion. Durch das Experimentieren mit verschiedenen Überlagerungen von Parallelströmung, Quellen, Senken, Dipolen und Wirbeln kann man die Umströmung unterschiedlicher Konturen darstellen. Verzerren lassen sich diese Strömungsbilder durch <a href="Konforme_Abbildung" title="Konforme Abbildung">konforme Abbildung</a> – das komplexe Argument wird durch eine Funktion des komplexen Arguments ersetzt. Beispielsweise lässt sich die Umströmung eines Kreiszylinders (Parallelströmung + Dipol) in die Umströmung eines tragflügel-ähnlichen Profils (<a href="Kutta-Schukowski-Transformation" title="Kutta-Schukowski-Transformation">Joukowski-Profil</a>) verzerren und die Rolle des tragenden Wirbels an einer Flugzeug-Tragfläche studieren. So nützlich diese Methode zum Lernen und Verstehen ist, zur genauen Berechnung reicht sie im Allgemeinen nicht aus.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Komplexe_Zahlen_in_der_Elektrotechnik">Komplexe Zahlen in der Elektrotechnik</h3></div>
<p>In der Elektrotechnik besitzt die Darstellung elektrischer Größen mit Hilfe komplexer Zahlen weite Verbreitung. Sie wird bei der Berechnung von zeitlich sinusförmig veränderlichen Größen wie elektrischen und magnetischen Feldern verwendet. Bei der Darstellung einer sinusförmigen <a href="Wechselspannung" title="Wechselspannung">Wechselspannung</a> als komplexe Größe und entsprechenden Darstellungen für Widerstände, Kondensatoren und Spulen vereinfachen sich die Berechnungen des <a href="Elektrische_Stromst%C3%A4rke" title="Elektrische Stromstärke">elektrischen Stromes</a>, der <a href="Wirkleistung" title="Wirkleistung">Wirk-</a> und der <a href="Blindleistung" title="Blindleistung">Blindleistung</a> in einer Schaltung. Um eine Verwechslung der imaginären Einheit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\text{i}}}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle i}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/add78d8608ad86e54951b8c8bd6c8d8416533d20.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.802ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle i}" loading="lazy"></span> zu vermeiden, wird in der Elektrotechnik international <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\text{j}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtext>j</mtext>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\text{j}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/203e8af8b050758a82361a722720a29ba17790fb.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.127ex; width:0.838ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\text{j}}}" loading="lazy"></span> für die imaginäre Einheit verwendet. Die durch Differentialquotienten oder Integrale gegebene Verkopplung geht über in eine Verkopplung durch trigonometrische Funktionen; die Berechnung der Zusammenhänge lässt sich damit wesentlich erleichtern. Auch das Zusammenwirken mehrerer verschiedener sinusförmiger Spannungen und Ströme, die zu unterschiedlichen Zeitpunkten ihre Nulldurchgänge haben können, lässt sich in komplexer Rechnung leicht darstellen. Genaueres über dieses Thema steht im Artikel über die <a href="Komplexe_Wechselstromrechnung" title="Komplexe Wechselstromrechnung">komplexe Wechselstromrechnung</a>.
</p><p>In den letzten Jahren hat die <a href="Digitale_Signalverarbeitung" title="Digitale Signalverarbeitung">digitale Signalverarbeitung</a> außerordentlich an Bedeutung gewonnen, deren Fundament die Rechnung mit komplexen Zahlen bildet.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Körpertheorie_und_algebraische_Geometrie"><span id="K.C3.B6rpertheorie_und_algebraische_Geometrie"></span>Körpertheorie und algebraische Geometrie</h3></div>
<p>Der <a href="K%C3%B6rper_(Algebra)" title="Körper (Algebra)">Körper</a> der komplexen Zahlen ist der <a href="Algebraischer_Abschluss" title="Algebraischer Abschluss">algebraische Abschluss</a> des Körpers der reellen Zahlen.
</p><p>Je zwei algebraisch abgeschlossene Körper mit derselben <a href="Charakteristik_(Algebra)" title="Charakteristik (Algebra)">Charakteristik</a> und demselben <a href="Transzendenzgrad" class="mw-redirect" title="Transzendenzgrad">Transzendenzgrad</a> über ihrem <a href="Primk%C3%B6rper" title="Primkörper">Primkörper</a> (der durch die Charakteristik festgelegt ist) sind (<a href="Ringtheorie" class="mw-redirect" title="Ringtheorie">ringtheoretisch</a>) <a href="Isomorphismus" title="Isomorphismus">isomorph</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bei einem Körper von Charakteristik 0 mit <a href="%C3%9Cberabz%C3%A4hlbar" class="mw-redirect" title="Überabzählbar">überabzählbarem</a> Transzendenzgrad ist dieser gleich der <a href="M%C3%A4chtigkeit_(Mathematik)" title="Mächtigkeit (Mathematik)">Kardinalität</a> des Körpers. Körpertheoretisch bilden die komplexen Zahlen also den einzigen algebraisch abgeschlossenen Körper mit Charakteristik 0 und der Kardinalität <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \aleph }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi mathvariant="normal">ℵ<!-- ℵ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \aleph }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/306c55e6bc96d94db729ff5821c8f45a34c72bce.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.42ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \aleph }" loading="lazy"></span> des <a href="Kontinuum_(Mathematik)" title="Kontinuum (Mathematik)">Kontinuums</a>. Eine Konstruktion des Körpers der komplexen Zahlen ist mithilfe dieser Feststellung auch rein algebraisch etwa als Erweiterung des algebraischen Abschlusses der rationalen Zahlen um <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \aleph }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi mathvariant="normal">ℵ<!-- ℵ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \aleph }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/306c55e6bc96d94db729ff5821c8f45a34c72bce.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.42ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \aleph }" loading="lazy"></span> viele transzendente Elemente möglich. Eine weitere Konstruktion liefert ein <a href="Ultraprodukt" title="Ultraprodukt">Ultraprodukt</a>: Hierzu bilde man zu jedem <a href="Endlicher_K%C3%B6rper" title="Endlicher Körper">endlichen Körper</a> seinen algebraischen Abschluss und bilde von ihnen das Ultraprodukt bezüglich eines beliebigen freien <a href="Ultrafilter" title="Ultrafilter">Ultrafilters</a>. Aus dem <a href="Satz_von_%C5%81o%C5%9B" title="Satz von Łoś">Satz von Łoś</a> folgt, dass dieses Ultraprodukt ein algebraisch abgeschlossener Körper mit Charakteristik 0 ist, die Kardinalität des Kontinuums folgt aus mengentheoretischen Überlegungen.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Unter dem Schlagwort Lefschetz-Prinzip werden verschiedene Sätze zusammengefasst, die es erlauben, Ergebnisse der <a href="Algebraische_Geometrie" title="Algebraische Geometrie">algebraischen Geometrie</a>, die über den komplexen Zahlen bewiesen werden, auf andere algebraisch abgeschlossene Körper mit Charakteristik 0 zu übertragen (was maßgeblich auf der <a href="Vollst%C3%A4ndigkeit_(Logik)" title="Vollständigkeit (Logik)">Vollständigkeit</a> der Theorie der algebraisch abgeschlossenen Körper mit Charakteristik 0 aufbaut). Die Betrachtung des komplexen Falls bietet den Vorteil, dass dort topologische und analytische Methoden eingesetzt werden können, um algebraische Ergebnisse zu erhalten.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Obige Ultraproduktkonstruktion erlaubt die Übertragung von Ergebnissen im Fall einer Charakteristik ungleich 0 auf die komplexen Zahlen.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spektraltheorie_und_Funktionalanalysis">Spektraltheorie und Funktionalanalysis</h3></div>
<p>Viele Ergebnisse der <a href="Spektraltheorie" class="mw-redirect" title="Spektraltheorie">Spektraltheorie</a> gelten für komplexe <a href="Vektorraum" title="Vektorraum">Vektorräume</a> in größerem Umfang als für reelle. So treten z. B. komplexe Zahlen als <a href="Eigenwert" class="mw-redirect" title="Eigenwert">Eigenwerte</a> reeller <a href="Matrix_(Mathematik)" title="Matrix (Mathematik)">Matrizen</a> auf (dann jeweils zusammen mit dem konjugiert-komplexen Eigenwert). Das erklärt sich dadurch, dass das <a href="Charakteristisches_Polynom" title="Charakteristisches Polynom">charakteristische Polynom</a> der Matrix aufgrund der algebraischen Abgeschlossenheit von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f9add4085095b9b6d28d045fd9c92c2c09f549a7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span> über den komplexen Zahlen stets in <a href="Linearfaktor" class="mw-redirect" title="Linearfaktor">Linearfaktoren</a> zerfällt. Dagegen gibt es reelle Matrizen ohne reelle Eigenwerte, während das <a href="Spektrum_(Operatortheorie)" title="Spektrum (Operatortheorie)">Spektrum</a> eines beliebigen <a href="Beschr%C3%A4nkter_Operator" title="Beschränkter Operator">beschränkten Operators</a> auf einem komplexen (mindestens eindimensionalen) <a href="Banachraum" title="Banachraum">Banachraum</a> nie leer ist.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In der Spektraltheorie auf <a href="Hilbertraum" title="Hilbertraum">Hilberträumen</a> lassen sich Sätze, die im reellen Fall nur für <a href="Selbstadjungierter_Operator" title="Selbstadjungierter Operator">selbstadjungierte Operatoren</a> gelten, im komplexen Fall oft auf <a href="Normaler_Operator" title="Normaler Operator">normale Operatoren</a> übertragen.
</p><p>Auch in weiteren Teilen der <a href="Funktionalanalysis" title="Funktionalanalysis">Funktionalanalysis</a> spielen die komplexen Zahlen eine besondere Rolle. So wird etwa die Theorie der <a href="C*-Algebra" title="C*-Algebra">C*-Algebren</a> meist im Komplexen betrieben, die <a href="Harmonische_Analyse" title="Harmonische Analyse">harmonische Analyse</a> befasst sich mit <a href="Darstellungstheorie" title="Darstellungstheorie">Darstellungen von Gruppen</a> auf komplexen Hilberträumen.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Funktionentheorie_und_komplexe_Geometrie">Funktionentheorie und komplexe Geometrie</h3></div>
<p>Das Studium differenzierbarer Funktionen auf Teilmengen der komplexen Zahlen ist Gegenstand der <a href="Funktionentheorie" title="Funktionentheorie">Funktionentheorie</a>. Sie ist in vieler Hinsicht starrer als die reelle Analysis und lässt weniger Pathologien zu. Beispiele sind die Aussage, dass jede in einem <a href="Gebiet_(Mathematik)" title="Gebiet (Mathematik)">Gebiet</a> differenzierbare Funktion bereits beliebig oft differenzierbar ist, oder der <a href="Identit%C3%A4tssatz_f%C3%BCr_holomorphe_Funktionen" title="Identitätssatz für holomorphe Funktionen">Identitätssatz für holomorphe Funktionen</a>.
</p><p>Die Funktionentheorie ermöglicht oft auch Rückschlüsse auf rein reelle Aussagen, beispielsweise lassen sich manche Integrale mit dem <a href="Residuensatz" title="Residuensatz">Residuensatz</a> berechnen. Ein wichtiges Einsatzgebiet dieser Methoden ist die <a href="Analytische_Zahlentheorie" title="Analytische Zahlentheorie">analytische Zahlentheorie</a>, die Aussagen über ganze Zahlen auf Aussagen über komplexe Funktionen zurückführt, häufig in der Form von <a href="Dirichletreihe" title="Dirichletreihe">Dirichletreihen</a>. Ein prominentes Beispiel ist die Verbindung zwischen <a href="Primzahlsatz" title="Primzahlsatz">Primzahlsatz</a> und <a href="Riemannsche_Zetafunktion" class="mw-redirect" title="Riemannsche Zetafunktion">riemannscher ζ-Funktion</a>. In diesem Zusammenhang spielt die <a href="Riemannsche_Vermutung" title="Riemannsche Vermutung">riemannsche Vermutung</a> eine zentrale Rolle.
</p><p>Die oben erwähnte Starrheit holomorpher Funktionen tritt noch stärker bei globalen Fragen in Erscheinung, d. h. beim Studium <a href="Komplexe_Mannigfaltigkeit" title="Komplexe Mannigfaltigkeit">komplexer Mannigfaltigkeiten</a>. So gibt es auf einer <a href="Kompakter_Raum" title="Kompakter Raum">kompakten</a> komplexen Mannigfaltigkeit keine nichtkonstanten globalen holomorphen Funktionen; Aussagen wie der <a href="Einbettungssatz_von_Whitney" title="Einbettungssatz von Whitney">Einbettungssatz von Whitney</a> sind im Komplexen also falsch. Diese sogenannte „analytische Geometrie“ (nicht mit der <a href="Analytische_Geometrie" title="Analytische Geometrie">klassischen analytischen Geometrie</a> von René Descartes zu verwechseln!) ist auch eng mit der <a href="Algebraische_Geometrie" title="Algebraische Geometrie">algebraischen Geometrie</a> verknüpft, viele Ergebnisse lassen sich übertragen. Die komplexen Zahlen sind auch in einem geeigneten Sinne ausreichend groß, um die Komplexität <a href="Algebraische_Variet%C3%A4t" title="Algebraische Varietät">algebraischer Varietäten</a> über beliebigen Körpern der <a href="Charakteristik_(Algebra)" title="Charakteristik (Algebra)">Charakteristik</a> 0 zu erfassen (Lefschetz-Prinzip).
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Verwandte_Themen">Verwandte Themen</h2></div>
<ul><li><a href="Gau%C3%9Fsche_Zahlen" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaußsche Zahlen">Gaußsche Zahlen</a> und <a href="Eisenstein-Zahlen" class="mw-redirect" title="Eisenstein-Zahlen">Eisenstein-Zahlen</a> sind eine Verallgemeinerung der ganzen Zahlen auf die komplexen Zahlen.</li>
<li><a href="Hyperkomplexe_Zahlen" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperkomplexe Zahlen">Hyperkomplexe Zahlen</a> verallgemeinern die algebraische Struktur der komplexen Zahlen.</li>
<li><a href="Komplexwertige_Funktion" title="Komplexwertige Funktion">Komplexwertige Funktionen</a> bilden komplexe Zahlen auf komplexe Zahlen ab.</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anmerkungen">Anmerkungen</h2></div>
<ol class="references" data-mw-group="Anm">
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-6">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bei Verwendung des Zeichens <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/18f0f09f6fc40e634d34aed6e205ac0f7a40e062.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.647ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> ist die Konvention noch deutlicher erklärbar, als es bei Verwendung von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\sqrt {-1}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\sqrt {-1}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4ea1ea9ac61e6e1e84ac39130f78143c18865719.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.906ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\sqrt {-1}}}" loading="lazy"></span> wäre, dass bei jedem Vorkommen <i>dieselbe</i> Lösung von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{2}+1=0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{2}+1=0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d858a17a86e6a30aa03273511c6b5972df00d68e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:9.965ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} ^{2}+1=0}" loading="lazy"></span> (dasselbe „Vorzeichen“) zu nehmen ist, und z. B. auch die Konvention, dass die <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle +\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle +\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/db09184173592ebced6ca947acd4e9854a6c3d7b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:2.455ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle +\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span>-Halbachse</span> durch eine Drehung der positiven reellen Halbachse im mathematisch positiven Sinn erreicht wird.<br>Dennoch bleiben alle algebraischen Aussagen gültig, wenn <i>überall</i> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/18f0f09f6fc40e634d34aed6e205ac0f7a40e062.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.647ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> durch <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle -\mathrm {i} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle -\mathrm {i} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c8ec3934b68cc5430cd1201cae5c62f7c9528127.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:2.455ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle -\mathrm {i} }" loading="lazy"></span> ersetzt wird.</span>
</li>
</ol>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literatur">Literatur</h2></div>
<ul><li><a href="Paul_Nahin" title="Paul Nahin">Paul Nahin</a>: <i>An imaginary tale: The story of <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\sqrt {-1}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\sqrt {-1}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4ea1ea9ac61e6e1e84ac39130f78143c18865719.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.906ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\sqrt {-1}}}" loading="lazy"></span>.</i> Princeton University Press, 1998, ISBN 978-0-691-14600-3.</li>
<li>Reinhold Remmert: <cite style="font-style:italic">Komplexe Zahlen</cite>. In: H.-D. Ebbinghaus, H. Hermes, F. Hirzebruch, M. Koecher, K. Mainzer, A. Prestel, R. Remmert (Hrsg.): <cite style="font-style:italic">Zahlen</cite>. Springer-Verlag, Berlin / Heidelberg / New York / Tokyo 1983, ISBN 3-540-12666-X, <span style="white-space:nowrap">Kap.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>3</span>, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>4<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>ff</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Komplexe+Zahl&rft.atitle=Komplexe+Zahlen&rft.au=Reinhold+Remmert&rft.btitle=Zahlen&rft.date=1983&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=354012666X&rft.pages=4+ff.&rft.place=Berlin+%2F+Heidelberg+%2F+New+York+%2F+Tokyo&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag" style="display:none"> </span></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Weblinks">Weblinks</h2></div>
<div class="sisterproject" style="margin:0.1em 0 0 0;"><div class="noresize noviewer" style="display:inline-block; line-height:10px; min-width:1.6em; text-align:center;" aria-hidden="true" role="presentation"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons"></span></span></div><b><span class=""><a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Complex_numbers?uselang=de"><span lang="en">Commons</span>: Komplexe Zahlen</a></span></b> – Sammlung von Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien</div>
<div class="sisterproject" style="margin:0.1em 0 0 0;"><span class="noviewer" style="display:inline-block; line-height:10px; min-width:1.6em; text-align:center;" aria-hidden="true" role="presentation"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Wiktionary"></span></span></span><b><a href="https://de.wiktionary.org/wiki/komplexe_Zahl" class="extiw external" title="wikt:komplexe Zahl">Wiktionary: komplexe Zahl</a></b> – Bedeutungserklärungen, Wortherkunft, Synonyme, Übersetzungen</div>
<div class="sisterproject" style="margin:0.1em 0 0 0;"><div class="noviewer" style="display:inline-block; line-height:10px; min-width:1.6em; text-align:center;" aria-hidden="true" role="presentation"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Wikibooks"></span></span></div><b><a href="https://de.wikibooks.org/wiki/Imagin%C3%A4re_und_komplexe_Zahlen" class="extiw external" title="b:Imaginäre und komplexe Zahlen">Wikibooks: Imaginäre und komplexe Zahlen</a></b> – eine kompakte Einführung</div>
<div class="sisterproject" style="margin:0.1em 0 0 0;"><div class="noviewer" style="display:inline-block; line-height:10px; min-width:1.6em; text-align:center;" aria-hidden="true" role="presentation"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Wikibooks"></span></span></div><b><a href="https://de.wikibooks.org/wiki/Komplexe_Zahlen" class="extiw external" title="b:Komplexe Zahlen">Wikibooks: Komplexe Zahlen</a></b> – Lern- und Lehrmaterialien</div>
<ul><li>Schriften, Dokumentationen
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.w-i-g.de/index.php?title=Komplexe_Zahlen">Einführung in die komplexen Zahlen.</a> w-i-g.de</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tf.uni-kiel.de/matwis/amat/mw1_ge/kap_2/basics/b2_1_5.html">Rechnen mit komplexen Zahlen.</a> uni-kiel.de</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dimensions-math.org/Dim_CH5_DE.htm">Anwendung der komplexen Zahlen in der Chaostheorie.</a> dimensions-math.org; insbesondere Kapitel 5 und 6.</li></ul></li>
<li>Programme zur direkten Ausführung
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.walter-fendt.de/html5/mde/complexnumbers_de.htm">HTML5-App zur geometrischen Deutung.</a> walter-fendt.de</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.calc3d.com/gjavascriptcomplexcalc.html">Rechner für komplexe Zahlen.</a> calc3d.com</li></ul></li>
<li>Zur Geschichte
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://members.chello.at/gut.jutta.gerhard/imaginaer1.htm">Geschichte der komplexen Zahlen.</a> members.chello.at/gut.jutta.gerhard</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cUzklzVXJwo">How Imaginary Numbers Were Invented.</a> Youtube; mit wissenschaftlicher Literatur in der Videobeschreibung</li></ul></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Einzelnachweise">Einzelnachweise</h2></div>
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bronstein, Semendjajew et al.: <i>Taschenbuch der Mathematik.</i> 6. Auflage. Verlag Harri Deutsch, S. 35.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bronstein, Semendjajew et al.: <i>Taschenbuch der Mathematik.</i> 6. Auflage. Verlag Harri Deutsch, S. 34.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Eberhard Freitag, Rolf Busam: <i>Funktionentheorie 1</i>. 4. Auflage. Springer, S. 4.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">John B. Conway: <i>Functions of One Complex Variable I</i>, Second Edition, Springer, S. 4.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bronstein, Semendjajew et al.: <i>Taschenbuch der Mathematik.</i> 6. Auflage. Verlag Harri Deutsch, S. 35.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-7">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bronstein, Semendjajew et al.: <i>Taschenbuch der Mathematik.</i> 6. Auflage. Verlag Harri Deutsch, S. 37.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-8">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bronstein, Semendjajew et al.: <i>Taschenbuch der Mathematik.</i> 6. Auflage. Verlag Harri Deutsch, S. 37.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-9">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Eberhard Freitag, Rolf Busam: <i>Funktionentheorie 1</i>. 4. Auflage. Springer, S. 22.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-10">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bronstein, Semendjajew et al.: <i>Taschenbuch der Mathematik.</i> 6. Auflage. Verlag Harri Deutsch, S. 35.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-11">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Eberhard Freitag, Rolf Busam: <i>Funktionentheorie 1</i>. 4. Auflage. Springer, S. 28.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-12">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bronstein, Semendjajew et al.: <i>Taschenbuch der Mathematik.</i> 6. Auflage. Verlag Harri Deutsch, S. 38.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-13">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">John B. Conway: <i>Functions of One Complex Variable I</i>, Second Edition, Springer, S. 4.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-14">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Serge_Lang" title="Serge Lang">Serge Lang</a>: <i>Complex Analysis</i>, Springer, 122.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-15">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Eberhard Freitag, Rolf Busam: <i>Funktionentheorie 1</i>. 4. Auflage. Springer, S. 23.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-16">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Helmuth_Gericke" title="Helmuth Gericke">Helmuth Gericke</a>: <cite style="font-style:italic">Geschichte des Zahlbegriffs</cite>. Bibliographisches Institut, Mannheim 1970, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>57–67</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Komplexe+Zahl&rft.au=Helmuth+Gericke&rft.btitle=Geschichte+des+Zahlbegriffs&rft.date=1970&rft.genre=book&rft.pages=57-67&rft.place=Mannheim&rft.pub=Bibliographisches+Institut" style="display:none"> </span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-17">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Remmert: <i>Komplexe Zahlen.</i> In: Ebbinghaus u. a.: <i>Zahlen.</i> Springer 1983, S. 48.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-18">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nahin: <i>An imaginary tale.</i> S. 56.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-19">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stillwell: <i>Mathematics and its History.</i> Springer, S. 287.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-20">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Morris_Kline" title="Morris Kline">Morris Kline</a>: <i>Mathematical thought from ancient to modern times.</i> Oxford University Press, 1972, Band 2, S. 631. Der Brief ist in Band 8 der Werke, S. 90 abgedruckt. Gauss verwendet die komplexe Zahlenebene wesentlich in seinem Beweis des Fundamentalsatzes der Algebra von 1816.<br><a href="Felix_Klein_(Mathematiker)" title="Felix Klein (Mathematiker)">Felix Klein</a>: <i>Geschichte der Mathematik im 19. Jahrhundert.</i> S. 28.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-21">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Heinz-Wilhelm_Alten" title="Heinz-Wilhelm Alten">Heinz-Wilhelm Alten</a>: <cite style="font-style:italic">4000 Jahre Algebra. Geschichte, Kulturen, Menschen</cite>. Springer, Berlin u. a. 2003, ISBN 3-540-43554-9, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>310</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Komplexe+Zahl&rft.au=Heinz-Wilhelm+Alten&rft.btitle=4000+Jahre+Algebra.+Geschichte%2C+Kulturen%2C+Menschen&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=3540435549&rft.pages=310&rft.place=Berlin+u.+a.&rft.pub=Springer" style="display:none"> </span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-22">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Das Zitat Carl Friedrich Gauß stammt aus der Zeit nach 1831, siehe <i>Werke</i>, 10, 1, Seite 404. Zitiert nach Friedrich Hirzebruch, Reinhold Remmert et al.: <cite style="font-style:italic">Zahlen</cite>. 3. Komplexe Zahlen § 1 Genesis der komplexen Zahlen, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>50</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abookitem&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Komplexe+Zahl&rft.atitle=3.+Komplexe+Zahlen+%C2%A7+1+Genesis+der+komplexen+Zahlen&rft.au=Friedrich+Hirzebruch%2C+Reinhold+Remmert+et+al.&rft.btitle=Zahlen&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.pages=50" style="display:none"> </span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-23">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Daher kommt auch, dass es überabzählbar viele „wilde“ <a href="Automorphismus" title="Automorphismus">Automorphismen</a> von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f9add4085095b9b6d28d045fd9c92c2c09f549a7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} }" loading="lazy"></span> gibt; siehe Paul B. Yale: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r261891140">
/* start https://de.wikipedia.org/ */
.mw-parser-output .webarchiv-memento a{color:inherit}
/* end https://de.wikipedia.org/ */
</style><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140202123928/https://www.maa.org/sites/default/files/pdf/upload_library/22/Ford/PaulBYale.pdf"><i>Automorphisms of the Complex Numbers.</i></a> (<span class="webarchiv-memento"><a href="Webarchivierung#Begrifflichkeiten" title="Webarchivierung">Memento</a></span> vom 2. Februar 2014 im <i><a href="Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></i>; PDF; 217 kB).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-24">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">H. Schoutens: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924123351/http://www.springer.com/cda/content/document/cda_downloaddocument/9783642133671-c1.pdf?SGWID=0-0-45-966343-p174008461"><i>The Use of Ultraproducts in Commutative Algebra.</i></a> (<span class="webarchiv-memento"><a href="Webarchivierung#Begrifflichkeiten" title="Webarchivierung">Memento</a></span> vom 24. September 2015 im <i><a href="Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></i>; PDF; 305 kB) Springer, 2010, S. 16.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-25">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Gerhard_Frey_(Mathematiker)" title="Gerhard Frey (Mathematiker)">Gerhard Frey</a>, Hans-Georg Rück: <cite style="font-style:italic">The Strong Lefschetz Principle in Algebraic Geometry</cite>. In: <cite style="font-style:italic">manuscripta mathematica</cite>. <span style="white-space:nowrap">Band<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>55</span>, 1986, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>385</span> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/dms/load/img/?PPN=PPN365956996_0055&DMDID=DMDLOG_0026&LOGID=LOG_0026&PHYSID=PHYS_0389">uni-goettingen.de</a>).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Komplexe+Zahl&rft.atitle=The+Strong+Lefschetz+Principle+in+Algebraic+Geometry&rft.au=Gerhard+Frey%2C+Hans-Georg+R%C3%BCck&rft.btitle=manuscripta+mathematica&rft.date=1986&rft.genre=book&rft.pages=385&rft.volume=55" style="display:none"> </span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-26">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Frey, Rück, S. 389.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-27">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Dirk_Werner_(Mathematiker)" title="Dirk Werner (Mathematiker)">Dirk Werner</a>: <cite style="font-style:italic">Funktionalanalysis</cite>. 7. Auflage. Springer, 2011, ISBN 978-3-642-21016-7, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>261</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Komplexe+Zahl&rft.au=Dirk+Werner&rft.btitle=Funktionalanalysis&rft.date=2011&rft.edition=7.&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=9783642210167&rft.pages=261&rft.pub=Springer" style="display:none"> </span></span>
</li>
</ol>
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